The Fractured Landscape of the Warring States Era

The Warring States period (475-221 BCE) represents one of the most turbulent and intellectually vibrant chapters in Chinese history. As seven major states vied for supremacy through near-constant warfare, this era of political fragmentation paradoxically gave birth to some of China’s most enduring philosophical traditions. Among these competing schools of thought, military strategy occupied a central place in intellectual discourse, with philosophers grappling with fundamental questions about the nature of warfare, justice, and statecraft.

This was an age where walled cities rose and fell with alarming frequency, where peasant conscripts died by the thousands in battles between rival states, and where rulers desperately sought any advantage that might ensure their survival. In this crucible of conflict, thinkers from various traditions – particularly the Mohists and Daoists – developed sophisticated military theories that went beyond mere tactical advice to address the moral and philosophical dimensions of warfare.

Mohism: The Paradox of Defensive Militarism

The Mohist school, founded by the philosopher Mozi (c. 470-391 BCE), presented one of history’s first systematic critiques of aggressive warfare while simultaneously developing advanced defensive military technologies. This apparent contradiction lies at the heart of Mohist military philosophy.

Mozi’s concept of “non-offensive warfare” (fei gong) did not advocate absolute pacifism, but rather opposed specifically what he termed “predatory wars” – conflicts where strong states attacked weaker ones to seize territory and resources. He vividly described how such wars devastated peasant communities, disrupting agriculture and leading to mass starvation: “In spring it ruins planting and cultivation, in autumn it prevents harvest… those who die from cold and hunger cannot be counted.”

### The Three Pillars of Mohist Defense

Mohism developed a comprehensive defensive military doctrine resting on three key principles:

1. Moral Leadership: “When rulers keep faith through righteous conduct, the people’s support becomes inexhaustible.” Mohists believed successful defense required virtuous governance that inspired popular loyalty.

2. Comprehensive Preparation: “Preparedness is the most important state affair.” The Mohists emphasized both material stockpiling (grain, weapons) and mental readiness, warning that “a city with incomplete walls cannot defend itself.”

3. Active Defense: “The best defense lies in swiftly harming the enemy.” Contrary to passive fortification, Mohists advocated aggressive counterattacks against besiegers, developing specialized anti-siege techniques against twelve common攻城 tactics including scaling ladders, battering rams, and tunneling.

The Mohist text “Preparation Against Siege” details remarkably sophisticated defensive technologies – from deployable iron fences to counter tunneling to multi-stage crossbow systems – representing one of history’s earliest systematic treatments of urban warfare.

Daoist Approaches to War: From Passive Resistance to Strategic Engagement

While Mohists developed technical military solutions, Daoist philosophers approached warfare through their distinctive metaphysical framework. The Zhuangzi, compiled by followers of Zhuang Zhou (369-286 BCE), extended Laozi’s teachings into a radical critique of militarism.

### Zhuangzi’s Anti-Militarist Vision

Zhuangzi viewed all warfare as fundamentally unnatural, arguing that “using cleverness to defeat others, using strategy to defeat others, using war to defeat others” all violated cosmic harmony. His famous dictum that “the sage considers the inevitable as optional, thus avoids war; ordinary people consider the optional as inevitable, thus frequently wage war” reflects a profound skepticism about human attempts to control outcomes through violence.

### The Military Paradox in Daoist Texts

Later Daoist-influenced military texts like the Wenzi and Heguanzi reveal a more pragmatic engagement with warfare while retaining Daoist philosophical foundations:

1. The Wenzi advocates “acting only when righteousness can be upheld,” distinguishing between predatory wars and conflicts to “eliminate violence and chaos.” It emphasizes psychological preparation before battle: “The king’s army achieves victory before fighting; the defeated army fights first then seeks victory.”

2. The Heguanzi introduces the striking concept that “among human affairs, military matters come first.” This text develops sophisticated strategic principles including the importance of deception (“appearing weak to mislead the enemy”), flexibility (“victory comes through multiple paths”), and leveraging advantageous circumstances (“troops prevail through favorable positioning”).

The Silk Texts: New Perspectives from Mawangdui

The 1973 discovery of silk manuscripts at Mawangdui revolutionized our understanding of Warring States military thought. Among these, the Jingfa text blends Daoist and Legalist ideas into a distinctive approach:

1. It acknowledges war’s destructive nature while recognizing its necessity in “an age of great contention,” stating bluntly: “Those who initiate conflict face danger, but without contention nothing can be accomplished.”

2. The text emphasizes popular support as the foundation of military success: “When the people are willing to die for a cause, then you may campaign.” This reflects the growing recognition of morale and logistics in warfare.

3. Its tactical principles stress environmental adaptation (“military actions must accord with heaven, earth, and human factors”) and defensive strength (“with surplus one can hold fast; with insufficiency, attack brings self-destruction”).

Enduring Legacies: From Ancient China to Modern Strategy

These Warring States military philosophies left indelible marks on Chinese strategic culture:

1. The Mohist emphasis on defensive technologies and just war theory anticipated later developments in military ethics and the Geneva Conventions’ distinction between aggressive and defensive warfare.

2. Daoist-influenced strategic writings contributed key concepts to Chinese strategic thought, including the value of flexibility (quan bian) and the importance of psychological factors over sheer material strength.

3. The synthesis of moral and practical considerations in these texts established a pattern where Chinese military theory consistently connected battlefield tactics with broader philosophical and political concerns.

Modern readers can still find relevance in these ancient texts – from the Mohist warnings about how war devastates agricultural communities (echoing concerns about modern conflict’s impact on food security) to the Daoist insights about the limits of military solutions to political problems. Perhaps most profoundly, these diverse traditions collectively suggest that the art of war cannot be separated from fundamental questions about human nature, social organization, and our relationship to the natural world.

In an era when drones have replaced scaling ladders and cyberattacks supplement siege engines, the Warring States philosophers remind us that beneath the changing technologies of conflict lie enduring questions about when – if ever – violence can be justified, and how societies might organize themselves to minimize its terrible costs.