The Clash of Reform and Reaction in Late Qing China

The 1898 Reform Movement (Wuxu Reform), lasting just 103 days from June to September, represents one of modern China’s most dramatic attempts at institutional transformation. This bold initiative spearheaded by the Guangxu Emperor and reformist intellectuals like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao sought to modernize China’s antiquated systems through sweeping political, educational, and military reforms. However, the movement’s abrupt suppression by conservative forces under Empress Dowager Cixi revealed fundamental tensions between reform and tradition in late imperial China.

The Historical Context: Crisis and Reform

China’s devastating defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) exposed the Qing dynasty’s military and technological backwardness. The Treaty of Shimonoseki’s harsh terms—including massive indemnities and territorial concessions—sparked national humiliation and intensified calls for reform.

Within the imperial court, two factions emerged:
– Reformists: Led by the Guangxu Emperor (1875-1908), this group included scholar-officials like Kang Youwei who advocated constitutional monarchy modeled after Japan’s Meiji Restoration.
– Conservatives: Dominated by Empress Dowager Cixi and powerful Manchu nobles like Prince Gong and Prince Qing, this faction viewed reforms as threats to traditional power structures.

The Hundred Days of Reform: Key Measures

On June 11, 1898, the Guangxu Emperor issued the “Imperial Decree on National Affairs” (Mingding Guoshi Zhao), launching an unprecedented wave of reforms:

1. Educational Reforms: Abolition of the eight-legged essay in civil exams, establishment of modern schools like the Imperial University of Peking (precursor to Peking University).
2. Economic Modernization: Incentives for industrialization, patent systems, and commercial development.
3. Military Reorganization: Adoption of Western training methods and weaponry.
4. Government Restructuring: Proposed creation of a “Bureau of Institutions” to bypass conservative-dominated ministries.

Empress Dowager Cixi’s Calculated Response

Cixi’s strategy toward reform evolved through distinct phases:

1. Initial Tolerance: She approved moderate measures like military upgrades and exam reforms that didn’t threaten Manchu privileges.
2. Control Mechanisms:
– Dismissal of reformist mentor Weng Tonghe (June 15, 1898)
– Appointment of conservative general Ronglu as Viceroy of Zhili to control military forces near Beijing
3. Observation Period: Monitoring reformist actions while restraining hardline conservatives.
4. Final Crackdown: Triggered by two critical incidents:
– The dismissal of six conservative ministers from the Board of Rites (September 4)
– Fears of Japanese statesman Itō Hirobumi’s influence as potential advisor

On September 21, Cixi launched a palace coup, confining the emperor and executing six prominent reformers (including Tan Sitong) at Caishikou Execution Grounds.

Intellectual Underpinnings and Strategic Errors

The reform movement’s ideological foundations contained fatal flaws:

1. Kang Youwei’s Controversial Theories:
– New Text Forgeries (Xinxue Weijing Kao): Claimed most Confucian classics were Han dynasty fabrications
– Confucius as a Reformer (Kongzi Gaizhi Kao): Portrayed Confucius as advocating institutional change
These radical reinterpretations alienated even moderate reformers like Zhang Zhidong.

2. Liang Qichao’s Radicalization: At the Shiwu Academy in Hunan, Liang’s teachings shifted from constitutionalism to anti-Manchu rhetoric, citing atrocities like the Yangzhou Massacre (1645). This alienated potential allies.

3. Tactical Miscalculations:
– Failure to accommodate conservative powerholders in proposed institutional reforms
– Overreliance on the politically weak Guangxu Emperor
– Lack of military support or foreign backing

The Reform’s Paradoxical Legacy

Though suppressed, the failed movement set in motion irreversible changes:

1. The Boxer Crisis Aftermath (1900-1901):
– The humiliation of Cixi’s flight during the Eight-Nation Alliance occupation forced belated reforms under the “New Policies” (Xinzheng).
– Measures like abolition of civil exams (1905) and provincial assemblies went beyond 1898 proposals.

2. Accelerating Revolutionary Sentiment:
– The execution of reformers like Tan Sitong (“I gladly die for reform”) turned public opinion against the Qing.
– Sun Yat-sen’s revolutionary movement gained traction as moderate reform proved impossible.

3. Constitutional Experiments:
– The 1908 “Principles of Constitution” and 1911 “Royal Cabinet” exposed Qing insincerity, hastening the 1911 Revolution.

Historical Reflections: Reform vs. Revolution

The movement’s failure presents enduring questions about social change:

1. The Dilemma of Top-Down Reform: Could China have achieved modernization without revolution under different leadership?
2. Cultural Transformation Challenges: Kang’s attempt to reconcile Confucianism with modernity foreshadowed 20th century debates.
3. The Cost of Conservatism: Cixi’s suppression bought the Qing only 13 more years before collapse.

As historian Joseph Levenson observed, “The tragedy of 1898 was that China’s most enlightened rulers were still not enlightened enough.” The movement’s vision of peaceful evolution toward constitutional monarchy—though crushed—planted seeds that would eventually transform Chinese politics and society.