A Throne Without an Heir: The Death of Emperor Kangxi

On November 13, 1722, the great Kangxi Emperor passed away unexpectedly, leaving behind an empire without a designated successor. This moment marked the beginning of one of the most contentious and mysterious successions in Chinese imperial history. Kangxi, who had ruled for an astonishing 61 years, found himself in his twilight years without having clearly established which of his many sons would inherit the Dragon Throne.

The absence of a clear succession plan created immediate turmoil within the imperial court. Kangxi’s death at the age of 68 came after a reign that had seen China reach new heights of power and prosperity, yet the emperor’s failure to decisively name an heir threatened to undo much of his life’s work. The stage was set for a dramatic power struggle that would ultimately elevate the fourth prince, Yinzhen, to become the Yongzheng Emperor – though the legitimacy of his claim would remain hotly debated for centuries.

The Contenders: Three Factions Vie for Power

The succession crisis that followed Kangxi’s death was the culmination of decades of rivalry among his numerous sons. Of Kangxi’s 35 sons (24 of whom survived to adulthood), twelve were over 20 years old when the first crown prince was deposed in 1707, making them potential contenders for the throne. These ambitious princes formed three distinct factions:

The Crown Prince faction centered around Yinreng, who had been named heir apparent at just two years old in 1674. Despite being Kangxi’s sixth son, he was designated as the second in line (hence “Second Prince”) due to imperial naming conventions. His position seemed secure, bolstered by his mother’s prestigious family connections – her grandfather Sony had been a regent during Kangxi’s minority, and her uncle Songgotu was a powerful grand secretary. However, after 33 years as crown prince, Yinreng grew impatient and began maneuvering to accelerate his ascension, leading Kangxi to denounce him as “disregarding ancestral virtues, disobeying imperial instructions, wantonly wicked and cruel, tyrannical and debauched.” The emotional Kangxi reportedly collapsed after announcing Yinreng’s removal, suffering a stroke that temporarily paralyzed his right hand.

The Eighth Prince faction emerged as a powerful alternative, led by Yinsi, whose intelligence and political skills had earned him widespread support among officials and imperial clansmen. When Kangxi solicited opinions about potential successors, many high-ranking officials including Grand Secretary Maqi openly backed Yinsi. This apparent coordination backfired spectacularly, as Kangxi grew suspicious of factionalism. In a dramatic confrontation, Kangxi drew his sword to execute Yinsi, only being restrained by the intervention of other princes. The Eighth Prince faction included several influential brothers: the eldest prince Yinti (who had initially supported Yinsi), the ninth prince Yintang, the tenth prince Yin’e, and the fourteenth prince Yinti (Yinzhen’s full brother).

The Fourth Prince faction operated more subtly under Yinzhen, who would become the Yongzheng Emperor. Unlike his brothers, Yinzhen avoided open alignment with any faction while quietly building his own power base. His strategy, advised by confidants like Dai Duo, rested on four pillars: demonstrating filial devotion to Kangxi, maintaining harmonious relations with his brothers, diligently executing administrative duties, and controlling his notoriously quick temper. This calculated approach allowed Yinzhen to position himself as a responsible alternative to the more openly ambitious princes.

The Succession Mystery: Legitimate Heir or Usurper?

When Kangxi died at the Chengchun Garden on November 13, 1722, the circumstances surrounding Yinzhen’s accession immediately became controversial. The official account holds that Kangxi orally declared Yinzhen his successor on his deathbed, with this pronouncement later enshrined in an imperial edict praising Yinzhen as “noble in character, profoundly resembling ourselves, certainly able to bear the great responsibility of succession.” Seven princes and the powerful official Longkodo reportedly witnessed this declaration.

However, skeptics point to several irregularities:

1. Yinzhen was absent during the alleged deathbed declaration, having been sent to conduct sacrifices at the Temple of Heaven – though he did visit Kangxi earlier that day without any mention of succession.

2. The imperial edict only appeared three days after Kangxi’s death, with critics arguing the crucial passage naming Yinzhen may have been inserted later.

3. Longkodo privately informed Yinzhen of his accession rather than making a public announcement.

4. The capital was placed under martial law, restricting princes’ movements during the sensitive transition period.

5. Yinzhen’s full brother, the Fourteenth Prince Yinti (a supporter of the Eighth Prince faction), was recalled from his military post but forbidden from entering Beijing, instead being sent to guard the imperial tombs before eventual imprisonment.

The most persistent legend claims Yinzhen altered Kangxi’s will by changing “fourteen” (十四子) to “fourth” (于四子) by adding strokes to the character. Historians dismiss this theory because: imperial documents used honorific titles like “the fourteenth son” rather than simple numerals; the complex form of “于” makes such alteration implausible; and the will existed in both Chinese and Manchu versions, making coordinated forgery extremely difficult.

The Aftermath: Purges and Propaganda

Once enthroned, Yongzheng moved decisively to consolidate power, displaying what many saw as a dramatic change in character from his careful pre-accession persona. His treatment of potential rivals was particularly harsh:

The former Crown Prince Yinreng died in confinement in 1724 under suspicious circumstances. The Eighth Prince Yinsi was posthumously renamed “Aqina” (variously interpreted as “pig” or “shameless”), while the Ninth Prince Yintang was called “Seshe” and died in prison allegedly from “sudden illness.” Even Yongzheng’s full brother, the Fourteenth Prince Yinti, spent years imprisoned at the Shouhuang Hall.

Two of Yongzheng’s most powerful early supporters met grim fates: military commander Nian Gengyao was executed with his son after being accused of 92 crimes (including the trivial offense of reversing characters in a memorial), while Longkodo – the official who supposedly conveyed Kangxi’s final wishes – died in confinement after predicting his own demise would follow Yongzheng’s accession.

In an unprecedented move, Yongzheng commissioned the “Great Righteousness Resolving Confusion” (大义觉迷录) to refute rumors about his accession. This extraordinary document addressed ten alleged crimes including patricide, matricide, fratricide, and tyranny, but many historians believe it only drew more attention to the controversies.

Yongzheng’s Legacy: Reformer and Autocrat

Despite the cloud over his accession, Yongzheng proved to be one of China’s most effective rulers during his 13-year reign (1722-1735). His administrative reforms left an enduring mark:

1. Anti-Corruption Campaigns: Immediately upon accession, Yongzheng issued 13 edicts targeting graft among officials. He established the Audit Bureau to scrutinize finances, recovering millions in embezzled funds.

2. Grand Council Creation: This new policymaking body bypassed traditional deliberative institutions, centralizing power in the emperor’s hands and reaching its zenith under Qianlong.

3. Expanded Memorial System: Yongzheng extended the confidential palace memorial system from about 100 to 1,200 officials, creating unprecedented information flows to the throne.

4. Native Chieftain Reform: The replacement of hereditary tribal leaders (tusi) with appointed bureaucrats in southwestern regions strengthened central control over ethnic minority areas.

5. Taxation Reform: Merging the poll tax into the land tax (摊丁入地) simplified administration while reducing burdens on the poor.

6. Social Reforms: Yongzheng abolished “mean status” classifications that had condemned certain groups to hereditary discrimination.

Yongzheng’s death in 1735 at age 58 spawned another set of mysteries, with theories ranging from assassination by a daughter of anti-Qing literati Lü Liuliang to poisoning by alchemical elixirs. The latter seems plausible given Yongzheng’s well-documented reliance on Daoist longevity potions containing mercury and lead.

Historical Assessment: Between Myth and Reality

The Yongzheng succession controversy remains unresolved after nearly three centuries, with historians divided between three main interpretations:

1. Legitimate Succession: Argues that Yongzheng was Kangxi’s intended heir based on the official will and his responsible conduct as prince.

2. Usurpation Theory: Maintains that Yongzheng seized power through forgery and manipulation.

3. Power Struggle Outcome: Suggests that with no clear heir, Yongzheng simply outmaneuvered his brothers in a de facto contest.

What remains undeniable is Yongzheng’s transformative impact. His reign bridged the prosperous Kangxi and Qianlong eras, with many “High Qing” achievements owing their foundations to his reforms. The very administrative systems that enabled Qianlong’s glory were largely Yongzheng’s creations. While the mysteries of his accession may never be fully solved, Yongzheng’s place as one of China’s most consequential emperors is secure – a ruler whose controversial beginnings belied his considerable statecraft.