The Enigmatic Origins of a Chinese Classic

The question of when Water Margin (《水浒传》) was written has puzzled scholars for centuries. Currently, three primary theories dominate academic discourse:

1. A Song Dynasty Creation?
A minority of Ming Dynasty scholars speculated that Water Margin originated in the Song Dynasty, given its focus on the historical Song Jiang rebellion (circa 1120s). However, no credible evidence supports this claim, and modern scholars universally dismiss it.

2. The Yuan-Ming Transition Theory
Most academics argue the novel was penned during the late Yuan or early Ming Dynasty (14th century). This aligns with the era of its purported authors, Shi Nai’an and Luo Guanzhong.

3. A Mid-Ming Controversy
Some contemporary scholars propose a mid-Ming (16th century) origin, citing anachronisms like Ming-era place names, silver currency usage, and advanced weaponry. Yet, these could reflect later edits rather than the original text.

The debate remains unresolved, but the Yuan-Ming theory retains the strongest scholarly consensus.

The Authorship Puzzle: Shi Nai’an, Luo Guanzhong, or Both?

Three competing narratives frame the authorship debate:

1. Luo Guanzhong as Sole Author
Early Ming records occasionally credit Water Margin solely to Luo Guanzhong, famed for Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

2. A Collaborative Effort
Most Ming-era editions attribute the novel to Shi Nai’an writing, Luo Guanzhong editing (施耐庵撰, 罗贯中编次). This suggests Shi as the primary author, with Luo refining the text.

3. The Shi Nai’an Solo Theory
Later Ming scholars, influenced by Jin Shengtan’s forged preface in his 1641 edition, popularized Shi as the lone genius behind the epic.

Key Insight: While Shi Nai’an likely spearheaded the work, Luo Guanzhong’s editorial role cannot be ignored. Modern editions often credit Shi alone, simplifying a complex collaboration.

Who Was Shi Nai’an? Shadows of a Literary Giant

Despite his fame, Shi Nai’an remains a historical ghost:

– Identity: His real name is unknown; “Nai’an” was likely a pen name.
– Origins: Early texts identify him as a native of Qiantang (modern Hangzhou).
– Possible Alter Ego: Scholar Wu Mei proposed Shi was Shi Hui, a Yuan-Ming playwright who authored the nanxi opera The Moonlight Pavilion. A rare manuscript, Legend Catalog (《传奇汇考标目》), supports this theory.

The Jiangsu Claim: In the 20th century, Dafeng and Xinghua counties in Jiangsu Province staked rival claims as Shi’s hometown, even producing dubious “family genealogies” and a 1940s-era tomb. These efforts lack historical merit.

Water Margin: Collective Folklore or Individual Brilliance?

A prevailing theory labels Water Margin a “cumulative work”—stitched together from centuries of oral and written traditions. However, two case studies challenge this:

### 1. Lin Chong: A Masterpiece of Originality
Lin’s tragic arc—an honest official driven to rebellion—epitomizes the novel’s “forced onto Liangshan” (逼上梁山) theme. Yet pre-Water Margin texts mention only his name, not his story. His richly layered betrayal, exile, and vengeance arcs bear the hallmarks of singular authorship.

### 2. Song Jiang and Yan Poxi: From Flat Tale to Psychological Drama
– Yuan Zaju Plays: Song Jiang kills Yan Poxi drunkenly, burns a house, and flees—a shallow crime spree with no moral complexity.
– Great Song Annals (《大宋宣和轶事》): Song murders Yan after catching her in adultery, a barebones “crime of passion.”
– Shi Nai’an’s Version: A tense, three-act tragedy where Yan blackmails Song over a stolen letter from rebel Chao Gai. Song’s internal struggle—from patience to fury—elevates the scene into timeless literature.

The Verdict: While folklore provided raw materials, Water Margin’s depth, character psychology, and narrative cohesion point to a visionary author—not a committee.

Legacy: Why Water Margin Endures

1. Cultural Impact
– Redefined the “heroic outlaw” trope in Chinese literature.
– Inspired countless adaptations, from Peking operas to modern films like The Water Margin (1972).

2. Literary Innovation
– Pioneered detailed domestic scenes (e.g., Yan Poxi’s bedroom), rare in classical epics.
– Humanized bandits, blending action with moral ambiguity.

3. Modern Resonance
– Themes of corruption and resistance remain globally relevant.
– Debates over its authorship mirror wider discussions about collaborative art vs. individual genius.

Final Thought: Whether penned by Shi Nai’an alone or refined by Luo Guanzhong, Water Margin stands as a testament to the transformative power of storytelling—where fragments of history become immortal art.