The Origins of Manchu Surname Traditions

The story of Manchu surnames begins with their ancestors, the Jurchen people, during the Jin Dynasty (1115-1234). In this early period, the Jurchen naming system was straightforward – individuals used their full surname and given name together, such as “Wanyan Aguda” or “Pucha Shijie.” This transparent system made one’s lineage immediately apparent to others.

This clear naming convention underwent dramatic transformation following the Mongol conquest of the Jurchen state in 1234. Under Mongol rule, the Jurchen people experienced significant cultural assimilation. One of the most profound changes was the gradual abandonment of surname usage in daily life, adopting instead the Mongol custom of using only given names. Over generations, this practice became so ingrained that later Manchus came to regard it as their own “traditional custom,” forgetting its foreign origins.

The Complex System of Manchu Hala

Despite not using surnames in daily life, Manchus maintained knowledge of their ancestral clans through what they called “hala” (哈拉 or 哈喇 in Chinese transliteration). These were the true surnames that connected individuals to their lineage. Famous examples include Niohuru (钮祜禄), Guwalgiya (瓜尔佳), and Janggiya (章佳).

As Manchu society developed, a more sophisticated system emerged to distinguish between different branches of the same hala. People began prefixing their hala with their place of origin. For instance:
– Nara clans from the Yehe region became Yehe Nara
– Those from the Ula region became Ula Nara
– Those from the Zhang area became Zhang Nara

This geographical distinction helped maintain clan identities while allowing for population growth and migration. The transliteration of these names into Chinese characters was flexible, with “nara” appearing as 那拉, 纳喇, 纳兰, or 那懒 depending on context.

The Aisin Gioro clan (爱新觉罗), the imperial family of the Qing Dynasty, presents a special case. Scholars still debate its exact origins, but Qing contemporaries believed “Aisin” was an honorific while “Gioro” represented the true hala. This explains why other Gioro clans like Irgen Gioro or Silin Gioro often simply referred to themselves as “Gioro.”

The Creation of “Jia” Surnames and Social Mobility

The Eight Banners system created unique social dynamics that influenced Manchu naming practices. Among banner personnel were Han Chinese, bondservants (包衣), and those who had gained banner status after being household slaves (另开户人). Over time, these groups became culturally “Manchufied” and adapted their names accordingly.

They developed a pattern of taking Chinese surnames and adding “jia” (佳) or “erjia” (尔佳) to make them appear Manchu. For example:
– The Cao family became Caojia
– The Wang family might become Wangjia or Wangerjia

A notable case was Cao Yin’s daughter, recorded in imperial genealogies as “Primary Consort Caojia, daughter of Cao Yin.” While these constructed names became common, it’s important to note that some “jia” surnames were authentic Manchu names dating back to the early Qing.

This practice led to a misconception in late Qing that all “jia” surnames were sinicized names. In reality, while many were, others like Angiya, Aogiya, and Baigiya were original Manchu surnames recorded in early Qing documents.

Debunking Common Myths About Manchu Surnames

Several persistent myths about Manchu surnames require clarification:

Myth 1: “All people with the same surname are related”
Just as with Chinese surnames, sharing a Manchu hala didn’t necessarily indicate kinship. For example, both the poet Nalan Xingde and Empress Dowager Cixi were Yehe Nara, but came from completely different lineages – one from the Yehe ruling family, the other from the Suwan branch.

Myth 2: “Certain surnames indicate nobility”
Social status in Qing society wasn’t determined by surname alone. Even among the Aisin Gioro, many lived in poverty. The concept of “Eight Great Manchu Surnames” was actually a misunderstanding – it referred to eight specific aristocratic families, not entire clans.

A telling anecdote involves the late Qing official Ronglu, who attempted to claim kinship with a fellow Guwalgiya, only to be rebuffed when he couldn’t claim descent from the prestigious Suwan Guwalgiya line. This incident reveals the importance of specific lineage over shared surname.

Naming Conventions in Daily Life

Manchus typically followed a “name-only” convention in daily interactions, known as “cheng ming bu ju xing” (称名不举姓). This led to the first character of a person’s given name functioning as a pseudo-surname.

For example:
– Heshen (和珅) of the Niohuru clan was called “Minister He” or “Zhongtang He”
– The poet Nalan Xingde (纳兰性德) was known as “Guard Chengde” or by his courtesy name “Chengrongruo”
– Late Qing statesman Baojun (宝鋆) of the Socoro clan was called “Zhongtang Bao”

Even in official documents, Manchu officials often omitted their hala. This practice became so widespread that the Qianlong Emperor had to order that surnames be included on official name cards during imperial audiences.

The Meaning and Evolution of Manchu Names

Early Manchu names reflected their cultural roots:
– Animal names: Gūlmahūn (rabbit), symbolizing agility
– Mongolian influences: Jirgalang (happiness)
– Descriptive names: Songgotu (night crier), suggesting a colicky baby
– Numeric names: Nadanju (seventy), often marking significant family ages

Manchus also used protective names like “Guanyinbao” (protected by Guanyin) or “Pusabao” (protected by the Bodhisattva). After entering China proper, naming practices split between “Manchu-centered” (Manchu meaning with Chinese characters as phonetic renderings) and “Chinese-centered” (direct use of Chinese names).

It’s worth noting that pronunciation of Manchu names in Chinese often differs from modern Mandarin. For instance, imperial princes’ names like Yinzhi, Yincheng, Yinchǐ, and Yinzheng are frequently mispronounced today.

The Transition to Chinese Surnames

While often associated with the Republican era, Manchu adoption of Chinese surnames began much earlier:
– Ming Dynasty: Some Jurchen/Manchus used Chinese names for convenience
– Qing Dynasty: Increasing contact with Han Chinese led to more surname adoption, prompting Qianlong’s warnings against cultural loss
– Republican era: Systematic surname changes occurred due to social pressures

However, the transition wasn’t uniform. For example:
– Some Aisin Gioro became Jin, but others took different names like Wen or Zhuang
– The Guwalgiya commonly became Guan, but not exclusively
– Multiple Manchu clans might adopt the same Chinese surname

This complex history reminds us that Manchu naming practices reflect centuries of cultural interaction, social mobility, and identity negotiation – a rich tapestry that continues to influence modern Chinese society.