From Imperial Banquets to Street Food: A Culinary Journey

The dining culture of Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) Beijing presents a fascinating intersection of tradition, innovation, and foreign influence. As the last imperial dynasty before China’s modernization, the Qing era saw significant shifts in ingredients, meal structures, and dining establishments—many of which laid the foundation for modern Chinese cuisine. This article explores how food reflected social hierarchies, cultural exchange, and daily life in the capital.

New Ingredients and Changing Palates

The Qing Dynasty witnessed the introduction of numerous foreign ingredients, many of which are now staples of Chinese cooking. Vegetables like tomatoes (then called “Western persimmons”), cabbage, onions, and zucchini entered Chinese diets during the Ming and Qing periods. Initially regarded as ornamental plants or exotic novelties, these ingredients gained culinary acceptance by the late 19th century, particularly among elites experimenting with Western-style dining.

Meat consumption also revealed cultural preferences. Pork dominated northern China due to its affordability and the Manchu tradition of pork-based dishes rooted in shamanistic rituals. Mutton was polarizing—adored by some for its richness but avoided by others due to its strong odor. Beef, though less restricted than in earlier dynasties, remained secondary. Game meats like venison and pheasant were relatively accessible in Beijing, supplied by imperial hunting grounds and sold in markets. Notably, horse meat—once consumed by the Manchus before their conquest of China—faded from popularity, likely due to its tough, sour taste.

Spices underwent their own revolution. Traditional “three fragrances” (花椒 huajiao, ginger, and 茱萸 zhuyu) were gradually replaced by辣椒 chili peppers, ginger, and胡椒 pepper by the Qing era, reflecting global trade routes and local adaptations.

Meal Structures: From Two Feasts to Snacking Culture

Qing dining schedules varied by class and region:
– One-meal systems were rare, reserved for military campaigns or emergencies like droughts.
– Two-meal systems dominated northern households, with “breakfast” (早膳) served around 10 AM and “dinner” (晚膳) at 6 PM. The imperial court adjusted these times flexibly, sometimes dining as early as 5 AM.
– Three-meal systems prevailed in the warmer, agrarian south and gained traction in late-Qing Beijing under Western influence.

Crucially, the Qing distinguished between formal “meals” (餐) and lighter “snacks” (点). Wealthy families might enjoy six daily “snacks”—morning tea, midday pastries, evening desserts, and midnight congee—while laborers settled for a simple breakfast bite. This hierarchy underscored how time itself was a luxury.

The Theater of Dining: Establishments and Etiquette

Beijing’s dining scene mirrored its social stratification:

### 1. 饭庄 (Grand Banquet Halls)
Named “某某堂” (e.g., 聚贤堂), these sprawling complexes with opera stages catered exclusively to the elite. Their “Four-Four Banquets” (四四席) featured 16 meticulously sequenced dishes—cold appetizers, braised meats, steamed buns—served on hexagonal tables seating just six guests. Ironically, the food was often mediocre; patrons paid for opulence, not flavor.

### 2. 饭馆 (Gourmet Restaurants)
Smaller “某某楼” establishments (e.g., 东兴楼) specialized in wok-fired delicacies like酱爆鸡丁 (jumbo-diced chicken). Unlike banquet halls, they welcomed intimate gatherings and even offered complimentary “courtesy dishes” (敬菜) to regulars—a predecessor of modern loyalty programs.

### 3. 饭铺 (Humble Eateries)
Late-Qing “two-meat shops” (二荤铺) severed from teahouses served quick stir-fries for commoners. Debate persists over their name’s origin: some claim it referenced pork and offal; others say it denoted dishes cooked from both house and customer ingredients.

### 4. 饭摊 (Street Stalls)
The lowest rung fed the poor with steamed buns or fried pancakes, often eaten standing up.

Legacy: How Qing Dining Shaped Modern China

The Qing’s culinary innovations endure today. Tomatoes and chili peppers are now indispensable, while the “snacking culture” thrives in dim sum and night markets. The shift from banquet-centric dining to à la carte menus mirrors the democratization of Chinese society. Even the once-elite Peking duck, perfected in Qing-era gourmet houses, is now a global favorite.

Ultimately, Qing Beijing’s food scene was a microcosm of its world—a blend of Manchu traditions, Han customs, and creeping globalization, all served on a single plate.