The Yuan Dynasty at a Crossroads

When Temür Khan (Emperor Chengzong) died unexpectedly in 1307, the Yuan Dynasty faced a succession crisis that would reshape its political trajectory. The grandson of Kublai Khan, Temür had ruled for thirteen years with relative pragmatism—halting costly military campaigns against Japan and Vietnam while curbing the excessive taxation imposed by Mongol nobility on Han Chinese subjects. His reign represented a delicate balancing act between Mongol traditions and the administrative needs of governing China.

Temür’s sudden illness in 1305 and the premature death of his heir, Prince Deshou, left a power vacuum. The court fractured along ideological and ethnic lines, setting the stage for a dramatic confrontation between competing factions.

The Succession Crisis of 1307

Empress Bulugan, backed by left chancellor Aqutai and Muslim officials, moved to establish a regency with support from Ananda—a grandson of Kublai Khan who had converted to Islam. This alliance alarmed conservative Mongols, particularly right chancellor Harghasun, whose family had served Genghis Khan. Harghasun viewed the growing influence of semu (Central Asian Muslims) as a threat to Mongol supremacy.

In a clandestine maneuver, Harghasun reached out to two princes: Khayishan (later Emperor Wuzong) and Ayurbarwada, sons of Temür’s late brother Darmabala. Khayishan, commanding frontier troops in Mongolia, represented military might; his younger brother Ayurbarwada held strategic territory in Henan. Their swift coup preempted Bulugan’s regency—Ayurbarwada seized the capital, executed Ananda and Aqutai, and imprisoned the empress.

The Rise of Emperor Wuzong

Khayishan’s triumphal entry into Dadu (Beijing) cemented his claim. The brothers agreed to an unprecedented succession pact: Khayishan would rule first, followed by Ayurbarwada under a “brother-to-brother, uncle-to-nephew” system. This arrangement aimed to prevent future disputes but reflected the Mongols’ flexible approach to succession, distinct from Han Chinese primogeniture traditions.

Wuzong’s reign (1307–1311) marked a sharp ideological turn. Unlike his predecessors—who balanced Mongol, Han, and semu officials—he purged non-Mongols from power. His inner circle included:
– Taraghai (Left Chancellor, from the Mongol Khongirad clan)
– Chongur (Kipchak Turkic general)
– Asha Buhua (Kangli Turkic statesman)

Han Chinese bureaucrats like Li Meng, who aided the coup, were sidelined or fled. Even Harghasun, the architect of Wuzong’s rise, found his influence diminished as the emperor embraced a neo-nomadic autocracy.

Economic Mismanagement and Social Unrest

Wuzong’s policies prioritized Mongol aristocratic interests at devastating cost:
1. Profligate Patronage: Lavish gifts to allies drained the treasury. One account notes he distributed 260,000 ding of silver—equivalent to 130 tons—to Mongol nobles.
2. Fiscal Desperation: The reestablished Shangshu Sheng (Department of State Affairs) became a vehicle for predatory taxation on salt, tea, and trade.
3. Cultural Alienation: Han literati like Zhang Yanghao, a censor, condemned the excesses in his famous poem “Hills and Rivers of Tong Pass”:

> “Peaks cluster like aggrieved souls,
> Waves churn with pent-up rage…
> Dynasties rise—the people suffer;
> Dynasties fall—the people suffer.”

Zhang’s critique highlighted Wuzong’s failures: unchecked spending, lax justice, and vanity projects like the costly construction of Zhongdu (a secondary capital).

Legacy: A Dynasty in Decline

Wuzong’s death in 1311—reportedly from alcoholism—ushered in Ayurbarwada (Emperor Renzong), who reversed many policies. Yet the damage was lasting:
– Ethnic Tensions: The purge of semu officials disrupted cross-Eurasian trade networks vital to Yuan prosperity.
– Institutional Erosion: Frequent bureaucratic overhauls weakened governance.
– Popular Resentment: Tax burdens fueled rebellions, foreshadowing the Red Turban uprisings that would topple the Yuan decades later.

Historians debate whether Wuzong’s “Mongol-first” approach was reactionary nationalism or pragmatic consolidation. Either way, his reign exposed the contradictions of a nomadic elite trying to govern an agrarian empire—a challenge that ultimately proved fatal to Yuan rule.

The succession crisis of 1307–1311 remains a pivotal moment in Chinese history, illustrating how personal ambition, ethnic factionalism, and economic shortsightedness can unravel even the mightest empires.