The Fall of the El-Temür Clan and Bayan’s Ascent

The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) witnessed the dramatic collapse of the powerful El-Temür family, whose dominance had shaped imperial politics for years. The execution of El-Temür’s son, Tangqishi, and daughter, Bayan’s ruthless purge of his rivals marked the end of one era and the beginning of another—the age of Bayan’s unchecked autocracy. Historical records describe Bayan as a man who “monopolized state power, arbitrarily altered ancestral laws, and brought suffering to the realm.” His rule surpassed even El-Temür’s in its tyranny.

Bayan cloaked his ambitions in the guise of reform, seeking to dismantle the institutional foundations laid by earlier Yuan emperors. Unlike his predecessors, he harbored a nostalgic vision of returning to the days of Genghis Khan and Ögedei, when Mongol rulers exercised absolute control over conquered lands. His policies aimed to reverse the gradual integration of Mongol and Han Chinese societies, reinstating a rigid hierarchy that favored Mongols and suppressed the Han majority.

Bayan’s Reactionary Policies and Social Upheaval

One of Bayan’s most controversial acts was the abolition of the imperial examination system in 1335. Originally introduced in 1315, the exams had provided Han Chinese scholars—and even some impoverished Mongols and Semu people—with a pathway to government service. By dismantling this system, Bayan shattered the aspirations of countless families and deepened ethnic tensions. His infamous declaration to Emperor Toghon Temür—”Your Majesty has a prince; do not let him read Han books, for Han learning breeds treachery”—epitomized his disdain for Confucian traditions.

Bayan’s paranoia extended beyond policy. He viewed any Mongol noble with Han sympathies as a threat. In 1338, he executed Prince Chechegtu of the Golden Family merely for associating with Confucian scholars. Even the emperor’s pleas for a bloodless execution were ignored—Bayan insisted on a public beheading, flouting Mongol customs.

His economic exploitation was equally staggering. Rewarded with vast estates—5,000 qing (approx. 82,000 acres) in Henan, another 5,000 from the emperor, and additional lands in Jizhou—Bayan amassed wealth that dwarfed the imperial treasury. At one point, his supporters nearly succeeded in granting him the title “Setsen” (“Wise”), a honorific once reserved for Kublai Khan.

Cultural Repression and the Tibetan Buddhist Influence

Bayan’s reign saw the extreme elevation of Tibetan Buddhist clergy. Though early Mongols practiced shamanism, the Yuan elite increasingly embraced Tibetan Buddhism, influenced by figures like Phagpa. Bayan took this devotion to fanatical lengths, consulting a Tibetan oracle for all decisions. When she prophesied his death “at the hands of southerners” (Han Chinese from former Song territories), he enacted draconian measures: banning Han from owning horses, dismissing Han officials, and even plotting to exterminate the five most common Han surnames—Zhang, Wang, Liu, Li, and Zhao.

The Downfall: A Nephew’s Betrayal

Bayan’s excesses bred widespread discontent. Rebellions erupted in Guangxi, Fujian, and Jiangxi, yet he remained oblivious, hosting lavish banquets while the empire crumbled. His 246-character official title—a parody of bureaucratic grandeur—could not shield him from backlash.

The turning point came from within his family. His nephew, Toqto’a, raised under Bayan’s wing but educated in Confucian ideals, recognized the danger. “If the emperor acts against him, our clan will perish,” he warned his father. Allying with the young Toghon Temür—who had long chafed under Bayan’s humiliations—Toqto’a orchestrated a coup. In 1340, as Bayan hunted outside Dadu (Beijing), imperial troops barred his return. Stripped of power, he was exiled to Henan, then Guangdong, dying en route.

The Toqto’a Reforms and Legacy

Toqto’a’s rise marked a stark reversal. His “Toqto’a Reforms” (脱脱更化) restored the imperial exams, rehabilitated purged nobles, and stabilized the regime. His crowning achievement was overseeing the compilation of the Histories of Liao, Jin, and Song—a monumental project completed in under three years (1343–1345). By granting each dynasty equal legitimacy, he resolved a century-old historiographical debate.

Yet the Yuan’s decline was irreversible. Toqto’a’s efforts came too late; peasant revolts like the Red Turban Movement would soon topple the dynasty. Bayan’s legacy endures as a cautionary tale—a reminder of how reactionary tyranny can hasten an empire’s collapse. His suppression of Han culture and institutions alienated the majority population, ensuring the Yuan’s eventual fall to the Ming in 1368.

In the end, Bayan’s “reforms” revealed not strength, but the fragility of Mongol rule when divorced from the realities of a multiethnic empire. His downfall, engineered by his own kin, underscored a timeless truth: no tyranny lasts forever.