A Dynasty in Disarray: The Yuan’s Mid-Period Crisis

The mid-Yuan period (1311–1350) witnessed one of the most unstable successions in imperial Chinese history. Within just 39 years, nine emperors ascended the throne—an average reign of barely four years. Six of these rulers gained power through violent coups or armed conflict. Two were assassinated, while another vanished after being overthrown. This era of chaos exposed the declining legitimacy of Mongol rule and foreshadowed the dynasty’s eventual collapse.

The revolving door of emperors included:
– Emperor Wuzong (Khaishan)
– Emperor Renzong (Ayurbarwada)
– Emperor Yingzong (Shidebala)
– Emperor Taiding (Yesün Temür)
– Emperor Tianshun (Ragibagh)
– Emperor Wenzong (Jayaatu Khan)
– Emperor Mingzong (Khutughtu Khan)
– Emperor Ningzong (Rinchinbal)
– Emperor Huizong (Toghon Temür, the last Yuan ruler)

Only three—Renzong, Yingzong, and Mingzong—experienced relatively smooth successions, though even these were marred by broken succession pacts and fratricidal intrigues.

The Bloody Path to Power

The Yuan throne became a deadly prize during this period. Emperor Yingzong’s 1323 assassination in the “Southern Slope Incident” marked the first regicide in Yuan history, orchestrated by the faction of disgraced chancellor Temüder. Emperor Mingzong met an equally grim fate—poisoned by his own brother Emperor Wenzong and the scheming chancellor El Temür during what should have been a triumphant return to Dadu (modern Beijing).

Contemporary chroniclers scathingly described most mid-Yuan emperors as either indolent pleasure-seekers squandering Genghis Khan’s legacy or cruel autocrats perfecting the art of oppression. Emperor Renzong stood as a partial exception—abolishing corrupt Tibetan Buddhist privileges, canceling extravagant construction projects, and streamlining the bloated imperial guard. His Confucian-inspired governance, however, proved but a brief respite in the dynasty’s downward spiral.

Decadence and Decline

The later Yuan courts descended into shocking depravity. Emperor Huizong (Toghon Temür) gained infamy for institutionalizing sexual excess, constructing pleasure palaces like the “Muqing Pavilion” stocked with groomed Korean girls. His neglected capital projects—like the 1342 Tonghui Canal expansion—were built with forced labor under brutal conditions, while hyperinflation from reckless currency printing (1350) devastated the economy.

This misrule ignited the Red Turban Rebellions (1351–1368). Key uprisings included:
– Guo Zixing’s revolt in Haozhou (1352), where future Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang began his rise
– Zhang Shicheng’s Zhou Kingdom in Gaoyou (1353)
– Fang Guozhen’s coastal rebellion in Zhejiang
– Liu Futong’s Red Turban movement proclaiming Han restoration

The Fall of the Mongol Empire in China

By 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang’s forces advanced on Dadu. In a symbolic full circle, the Mongols who had conquered China with terrifying cavalry now found their troops “as fragile as autumn leaves” against peasant armies. On September 10, 1368, Emperor Huizong fled north through the Juyong Pass, reportedly weeping: “What evil did I commit to lose my empire?”

Legacy of the Mid-Yuan Chaos

This turbulent period demonstrated how rapidly the Mongols’ martial ethos eroded amid Chinese luxuries. The succession crises weakened central authority, while ethnic policies breeding resentment made the Yuan collapse inevitable. Modern Beijing still bears traces of this era—the Tonghui River route now carries commuters along Tonghuihe North Road, oblivious to its tragic origins.

The mid-Yuan emperors’ failures offer timeless lessons about the perils of disconnected leadership, institutional corruption, and the illusion that power alone ensures longevity. Their dramatic downfalls continue to inspire Chinese literature and drama, serving as cultural shorthand for the consequences of misrule.