The Fall of the Yuan and the Birth of the Northern Yuan

The mid-14th century was a time of upheaval in East Asia. The once-mighty Yuan Dynasty, established by Kublai Khan, had weakened due to internal strife, economic mismanagement, and widespread rebellion. By 1368, the Ming Dynasty, led by the ambitious Zhu Yuanzhang (Emperor Hongwu), had seized control of China proper, forcing the Yuan court to flee northward to the Mongolian steppe.

This marked the beginning of the Northern Yuan—a rump state that claimed continuity from the Yuan Dynasty but was now confined to Mongolia and parts of Manchuria. At its helm was Ayushiridara, the son of the last Yuan emperor, Toghon Temür. His reign, beginning in 1371 under the era name Xuanguang, was a desperate attempt to preserve Mongol sovereignty.

The Rise of Köke Temür: A Loyalist’s Struggle

Central to the Northern Yuan’s survival was Köke Temür, a brilliant general also known by his Chinese name, Wang Baobao. Unlike many Mongol nobles who had defected to the Ming, Köke Temür remained fiercely loyal to the Yuan cause. His military acumen and unyielding determination made him Ayushiridara’s most trusted advisor.

Recognizing the existential threat posed by the Ming, Köke Temür embarked on a campaign to rebuild the Northern Yuan’s military strength. He recruited and trained new cavalry units, stockpiled supplies, and studied the tactics of Genghis Khan—preparing for an inevitable Ming assault.

The Ming Invasion of 1372: A Clash of Titans

Emperor Hongwu, wary of a Mongol resurgence, resolved to crush the Northern Yuan once and for all. In 1372, he launched a massive three-pronged invasion:

1. Central Army (Led by Xu Da) – The most formidable force, marching directly toward Karakorum, the Northern Yuan’s capital.
2. Eastern Army (Led by Li Wenzhong) – Tasked with securing the eastern flank.
3. Western Army (Led by Feng Sheng) – Focused on subduing Mongol forces in the northwest.

### Köke Temür’s Masterstroke at Karakorum

Knowing that a direct confrontation would be disastrous, Köke Temür employed classic Mongol tactics: deception, mobility, and ambush. He allowed Ming vanguard forces, led by the overconfident General Lan Yu, to advance deep into Mongol territory, feigning retreat to lure them into a trap.

When Xu Da’s main force arrived, they were encircled near the Tula River. The ensuing battle was a catastrophe for the Ming—over 30,000 soldiers were killed or captured, forcing a humiliating retreat.

### The Eastern Front: Another Ming Defeat

Li Wenzhong’s eastern army fared no better. Ambushed along the Orkhon River, they suffered heavy losses, including the deaths of key commanders. Li himself narrowly escaped after his horse was shot from under him.

### The Sole Ming Victory: The Western Campaign

Only Feng Sheng’s western army achieved success, defeating Mongol forces in the Hexi Corridor. This secured a vital strategic region but did little to offset the overall Ming defeat.

The Aftermath: A Stalemate on the Steppe

The 1372 campaign was a turning point:

– For the Ming, it was a sobering lesson—the Mongols, though weakened, remained a formidable foe.
– For the Northern Yuan, it was a temporary reprieve, proving they could still defend their homeland.

However, the victory did not reverse their decline. Ayushiridara and Köke Temür realized that reconquering China was impossible. Their struggle became one of survival rather than restoration.

Legacy: The Enduring Myth of Köke Temür

Köke Temür’s loyalty and tactical brilliance earned him legendary status. Even Emperor Hongwu reportedly admired him, calling him “the one man I could not subdue.”

The Northern Yuan persisted for decades, but internal divisions and Ming pressure eventually eroded its power. By the 15th century, the Mongols fragmented into competing tribes, setting the stage for later conflicts like those with the Oirats and the rise of Dayan Khan.

Modern Relevance: Lessons from a Forgotten War

The 1372 campaign highlights key themes in military history:

– The importance of terrain and mobility – Köke Temür’s use of steppe warfare neutralized Ming numerical superiority.
– The limits of imperial expansion – Even the mighty Ming could not fully subdue the nomadic north.
– The resilience of displaced regimes – The Northern Yuan’s endurance shows how exiled dynasties can persist through sheer determination.

Today, this episode remains a poignant reminder of how empires rise, fall, and sometimes refuse to disappear.