Breaking Barriers in a Patriarchal World

In the annals of Chinese history, no figure stands as uniquely formidable as Wu Zetian (624–705), the only woman to ever claim the title of emperor in her own right. Her ascent from concubine to sovereign defied Confucian norms, dismantled aristocratic power structures, and rewrote the political playbook of the Tang Dynasty. This article explores the calculated strategies—both brutal and brilliant—that enabled Wu Zetian to conquer a system designed to exclude her.

The Making of a Political Operator

Wu Zetian’s path to power began in the shadows of imperial intrigue. Originally a junior concubine of Emperor Taizong, she later became a consort of his successor, Emperor Gaozong. Historians traditionally framed her 655 elevation to empress as Gaozong’s maneuver against the Guanlong aristocratic clique—the last vestige of China’s medieval nobility. Yet this narrative underestimates Wu’s agency.

The turning point came during the Xianqing era (656–661), when Gaozong’s debilitating hypertension (recorded as “wind illness” in Tang chronicles) left him frequently incapacitated. Seizing the opportunity, Wu began handling routine state affairs, cultivating loyalists within the bureaucracy. By 674, when the imperial couple adopted the titles “Celestial Emperor” and “Celestial Empress,” contemporary records noted that “political authority derived from the Wu faction.”

The Bloody Road to the Throne

### The Mysterious Death of Crown Prince Li Hong

In 675, the sudden demise of 23-year-old Crown Prince Li Hong—Wu’s eldest son—sent shockwaves through the court. Official records attributed his death to tuberculosis (then called consumptive disorder), but the circumstances remain suspicious:

– The death occurred weeks after Gaozong proposed abdicating in Li Hong’s favor
– A 1995 archaeological discovery revealed the near-simultaneous death of Li Hong’s chief steward, Yan Zhuang, whose epitaph contained cryptic phrases scholars interpret as暗示 violent ends for both men
– The Yan family—including two former chancellors—expunged Yan Zhuang from their genealogies, suggesting political intimidation

While some historians argue Wu had no motive (with three other sons as potential heirs), subsequent events proved her willingness to eliminate familial obstacles.

### Systematic Elimination of Rivals

Wu’s remaining sons faced grim fates:

1. Li Xian (Crown Prince 675–680): Exiled and forced to suicide after being accused of treason
2. Li Xian (Emperor Zhongzong): Deposed in 684 for allegedly offering the throne to his father-in-law
3. Li Dan (Emperor Ruizong): Forced to abdicate in 690 after years of symbolic rule

This ruthless consolidation of power culminated on October 16, 690 (the 9th day of the 9th month—a numerologically potent date), when Wu proclaimed the Zhou Dynasty, becoming China’s sole female emperor at age 65.

Cultural Engineering: The Art of Legitimization

### Weaponizing Buddhism

Facing Confucian opposition to female rule, Wu executed a masterstroke of ideological rebranding. Leveraging her Buddhist connections (including her mother’s piety and her own convent years), she commissioned revised scriptures:

– The Great Cloud Sutra Commentary: Positioned her as a bodhisattva-appointed regent
– The Rain of Treasures Sutra (modified by her lover Xue Huaiyi): Explicitly prophesied a female monarch ruling the East

This theological framework transformed gender from liability to divine mandate. Archaeological evidence abounds, from the unfinished Longmen Grottoes triad (likely abandoned after Xue’s execution) to Dunhuang’s colossal 35.5-meter Maitreya Buddha—a political statement carved in sandstone.

### Visual Propaganda

Wu reshaped Luoyang’s skyline with symbolic architecture:

– The 90-meter-tall Tianshu Column (Axis of Heaven)
– The Mingtang (Hall of Enlightenment)—a multi-story political-religious complex
– Character reforms like her personal name 曌 (zhào, “shining like sun and moon”) and 國 (guó, “nation” rewritten with “eight directions”)

The Paradox of Feminist Iconography

Despite her unprecedented power, Wu navigated patriarchal constraints with paradoxical measures:

– Commissioning Confucian “women’s virtue” manuals to placate traditionalists
– Adopting masculine imperial rituals while emphasizing her maternal role as “Sage Mother”
– Establishing a female bureaucracy for palace affairs while maintaining male-dominated civil services

Legacy: The Emperor Who Changed China’s DNA

Historian Chen Yinke identified Wu’s reign as a watershed that:

1. Destroyed the aristocratic monopoly on power
2. Shifted China’s economic axis toward the Henan region
3. Pioneered examination system reforms that shaped later dynasties

Modern assessments remain divided. Was she a proto-feminist trailblazer or a tyrant who weaponized gender when convenient? Perhaps both—a ruler who exploited every tool available to a woman in a man’s world, then transcended the categories altogether.

The unfinished Buddhist statues and rewritten characters stand as fitting metaphors for Wu Zetian’s reign: audacious in vision, controversial in execution, and impossible to ignore. Her story endures not merely as historical anomaly, but as a case study in how power—once grasped—can redefine the very systems that sought to contain it.