The Strategic Backdrop of the Qingyang Campaign

The year was 1370, and the newly established Ming Dynasty faced its most formidable challenge yet – consolidating control over northern China against remnants of the Yuan Dynasty. The Siege of Qingyang emerged as a critical flashpoint in this broader conflict, pitting Ming general Xu Da against Yuan loyalist Zhang Liangchen in a brutal test of wills that would last over three months.

This confrontation occurred during a period of remarkable transition in Chinese history. The Ming forces, having recently captured the Yuan capital of Dadu (modern Beijing), now sought to eliminate remaining Yuan strongholds. Qingyang’s strategic location in modern-day Gansu province made it a crucial target – its capture would secure Ming control over the vital Hexi Corridor and prevent Yuan remnants from regrouping in the northwest.

The campaign unfolded against the backdrop of shifting loyalties and complex regional politics. Zhang Liangchen, originally a Yuan commander, had briefly surrendered to the Ming before rebelling – an act that made his eventual fate particularly significant in establishing Ming authority. Meanwhile, the brilliant Yuan general Köke Temür (Wang Baobao in Chinese sources) orchestrated diversionary attacks elsewhere, demonstrating the interconnected nature of these northern campaigns.

The Siege Begins: Tactics and Counter-Tactics

Xu Da, one of the Ming’s most capable generals, arrived at Qingyang with overwhelming numerical superiority – his forces outnumbered the defenders roughly ten to one. Yet the city’s formidable defenses and Zhang Liangchen’s determined leadership turned what should have been a quick victory into a protracted siege.

The Ming army employed classic siege tactics:
– Complete encirclement to prevent reinforcement or escape
– Attempts to undermine city walls
– Psychological warfare to demoralize defenders
– Interception of supply lines

Zhang’s defenders responded with equally sophisticated measures:
– Careful rationing of dwindling supplies
– Counter-mining operations
– Surprise sorties to disrupt siege works
– Exploiting the city’s elevated position for defensive advantage

A fascinating parallel siege developed at Fengxiang, where Yuan forces under He Zongzhe besieged the Ming garrison. This created a strategic dilemma – while Qingyang held greater psychological significance, Fengxiang’s location on vital communication routes made it tactically more important. The dual sieges became a test of which side could hold out longer.

The Human Cost: Famine and Desperation Inside Qingyang

As weeks turned into months, conditions inside Qingyang grew increasingly dire. Historical accounts describe horrifying scenes of starvation, with defenders reportedly resorting to boiling “human juice” mixed with mud for sustenance. While the exact nature of this substance remains debated among historians, it clearly reflects the extreme deprivation faced by Qingyang’s inhabitants.

The siege’s psychological toll proved equally devastating. Several significant defections occurred, including a Yuan “Little Marshal” who escaped to Ming lines with crucial intelligence about the city’s exhausted supplies. These defections not only provided Xu Da with valuable information but also shattered what remained of Qingyang’s morale.

Zhang Liangchen’s desperate breakout attempts in August 1370 demonstrated his worsening position. His troops, weakened by hunger, failed to penetrate Ming lines despite multiple attempts from different city gates. Each failed sortie resulted in more defections, as starving soldiers seized opportunities to surrender.

The Final Days: Surrender and Aftermath

On August 21, 1370, Qingyang’s defenses finally collapsed. Facing certain defeat and likely execution, Zhang Liangchen and his seven adopted sons (known collectively as the “Seven Spears”) allegedly attempted suicide by throwing themselves into a dry well – an act historians now question given the impracticality of eight men simultaneously committing suicide in such confined space.

Xu Da, having rejected earlier surrender overtures, showed no mercy to the rebel leader. Zhang and his inner circle were executed, along with hundreds of loyalists. This harsh treatment served as a deliberate message to other potential holdouts about the consequences of resisting Ming authority.

The siege’s conclusion marked a turning point in the Ming consolidation of northern China. With Qingyang secured, Ming forces could focus on eliminating remaining Yuan strongholds, paving the way for lasting stability under the new dynasty.

Military Innovations and Tactical Lessons

Both sides demonstrated remarkable ingenuity during the sieges of Qingyang and Fengxiang:

At Fengxiang, He Zongzhe’s forces developed:
– “Turtle shell” siege shields (龟笆) made from woven vines
– Innovative tunneling techniques using water to soften soil
– Complex feigned retreats and ambushes

The Ming defenders countered with:
– Fire attacks against siege works
– Unconventional troop deployments (including soldiers lowered by ropes)
– Psychological operations like the “straw reward” deception for newly surrendered troops

These innovations would influence siege warfare in subsequent Chinese conflicts. The campaign also highlighted the importance of:
– Intelligence gathering (as seen in the defector’s information about Qingyang’s supplies)
– Psychological resilience in prolonged sieges
– Combined arms coordination between infantry, cavalry, and artillery

Cultural and Political Repercussions

The Qingyang campaign resonated far beyond its military significance:

1. Prisoner Policy: The Ming’s treatment of captured Yuan general Tuoliebo (脱列伯) demonstrated a pragmatic approach to former enemies. His eventual release and honorable treatment contrasted sharply with the fate of other Yuan commanders, showing the Ming’s selective mercy.

2. Legitimacy Building: The victory helped establish Ming military credibility after the dynasty’s founding, proving their ability to overcome formidable Yuan remnants.

3. Regional Dynamics: The elimination of the “Four Guanzhong Generals” removed key obstacles to Ming control in the northwest, reshaping regional power structures.

4. Moral Lessons: Zhang Liangchen’s fate became a cautionary tale about the perils of betrayal and last-ditch resistance in Chinese political culture.

Historical Assessment and Modern Perspectives

Modern historians view the Siege of Qingyang through several interpretive lenses:

1. Logistical Warfare: The campaign underscores how supply lines and starvation tactics often determined medieval siege outcomes more than direct combat.

2. Psychological Factors: The differing morale between besiegers and besieged proved decisive, with defections playing a crucial role.

3. Comparative Siegecraft: Qingyang invites comparison with other famous sieges like Xiangyang (1267-1273) or Kaifeng (1232-1233), showing both continuities and innovations in Chinese siege warfare.

4. Ethical Considerations: The extreme measures taken by Qingyang’s defenders raise questions about the human cost of loyalty during dynastic transitions.

The campaign’s legacy endures in Chinese military historiography as a case study in:
– The limits of fortification against determined besiegers
– The psychological breaking point of besieged populations
– The political calculus behind surrender terms and prisoner treatment

As China’s last major siege warfare before the widespread use of gunpowder artillery, Qingyang represents both an end to traditional siege methods and a bridge to early modern warfare techniques that would dominate the coming centuries.