Introduction: Uncovering Ancient Civilizations

The vast northern region encompassing southern Inner Mongolia and adjacent parts of Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi provinces holds remarkable archaeological treasures. This area, stretching south of the Daqing Mountains in Inner Mongolia through the Hohhot and Baotou regions to the northern territories of Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi, reveals a complex tapestry of Neolithic cultures that flourished between 4000-2500 BCE. These ancient societies developed unique cultural characteristics while maintaining connections with neighboring regions, creating a fascinating mosaic of prehistoric life in northern China.

The Dawn of Civilization: Early Neolithic Foundations (4000-3500 BCE)

Archaeological discoveries in this region trace human settlement back to the Late Neolithic period around 4000 BCE, contemporary with the Banpo culture of the Central Plains. Excavations have revealed two distinct cultural traditions that laid the foundation for later developments.

The first cultural tradition shows strong affinities with the Hougang I culture of the Yellow River valley, primarily found east of Baotou. Key sites include Hongtaipoxia and Shihushan near Daihai Lake in Inner Mongolia, along with Ashanyiqi and Xiyuanyiqi at the southern foothills of the Daqing Mountains. These settlements shared ceramic styles and construction techniques with their southern neighbors while maintaining local characteristics.

The second tradition blended elements from both Banpo and Hougang I cultures, concentrated in the Yikezhao League and adjacent Yellow River areas. Sites like Bainyaozi in Qingshuihe County and Guandiyiqi in Jungar Banner reveal this unique cultural synthesis. Distinctive local features included thin-walled, large-mouthed deep-bellied sand-tempered jars and slab stone tombs – innovations not found in either Banpo or Hougang cultures.

Archaeologists note that while these cultures showed influences from southern neighbors, they developed independently rather than simply representing northern expansions of those cultures. At the periphery, other cultural influences appeared, such as the zigzag and comb patterns from the Xinglongwa-Hongshan cultural system of western Liaoning.

Cultural Flourishing: The Middle Neolithic Period (3500-2800 BCE)

During the subsequent period corresponding to the Miaodigou culture of the Central Plains (3500-2800 BCE), the region experienced significant cultural development. Excavations at sites like Wangmushanpoxia in Daihai and Bainyaozi in Qingshuihe County reveal settlements that maintained connections with the Miaodigou culture while developing strong regional characteristics.

The southern Jinzhong region showed closer affinities with typical Miaodigou culture, while northern areas developed more distinctive local features. One notable innovation was the “fire seed jar” – a ceramic vessel type unique to the Yellow River bend and Daihai regions. These developments were so pronounced that some scholars propose naming this northern variant the “Bainyaozi culture.”

This period saw significant population growth, with more sites discovered across a wider area than in previous phases. The cultural characteristics became more pronounced, and preliminary chronological sequences began to emerge. Most scholars agree that these Middle Neolithic cultures formed the primary foundation for the subsequent Haishengbulang culture.

The Golden Age: Haishengbulang Culture (3300-2800 BCE)

Between 3300-2800 BCE, paralleling developments across northern China, the region entered a period of remarkable cultural prosperity dominated by the Haishengbulang culture.

### Discovery and Research History

First identified in the 1960s near Haishengbulang village in Inner Mongolia, this culture became better understood through 1980s excavations at sites like Ashang in Baotou and Miaozigou in Chahar Right Front Banner. By 1992, systematic excavations at the type site confirmed its distinct cultural characteristics.

### Cultural Features

Haishengbulang pottery falls into two categories: sand-tempered and fine-paste wares. Sand-tempered vessels included jars and urns, often decorated with cord marks, appliqué bands, and linear patterns. Fine-paste wares featured small-mouthed double-handled jars, pointed-bottom bottles, and various bowls and basins, some with painted designs in red, black, or purple pigments.

The lithic industry comprised three technologies: flaked stone tools (discoids and stone balls), ground stone implements (axes, spades, and knives), and microliths (arrowheads and scrapers). This combination reflects a versatile toolkit adapted to various subsistence activities.

### Settlement Patterns and Architecture

Haishengbulang sites typically occupied slopes, with some larger settlements exceeding 70,000 square meters (Dongtan site). A notable development was the appearance of stone enclosure walls, like the 240-meter-long wall at Baicaota site – the earliest known stone fortification in northern China.

The Miaozigou site, covering over 30,000 square meters, revealed 52 semi-subterranean houses arranged in rows, with associated storage pits and burials. Some houses contained human remains, possibly indicating ritual practices or sudden calamities.

Houses were predominantly rectangular semi-subterranean structures (10-15 m²) with central hearths. The “double-hearth” house type, featuring connected cooking facilities, became characteristic in some areas. At Baicaota, House F28 exemplified this style with its paved entrance and stone-lined hearth.

### Economic Life and Regional Connections

Analysis of animal remains from Wangmushanshang suggests an agricultural economy supplemented by domesticated pigs and dogs (44% of remains), with deer hunting providing additional protein. The concentration of large sites around Daihai Lake indicates particularly prosperous agricultural communities.

While rooted in local traditions, Haishengbulang culture shows influences from neighboring regions. Painted pottery designs reveal connections with Hongshan culture to the northeast, while cord-marked jars show affinities with Xiaoheyan culture of western Liaoning. Interestingly, the distinctive double-hearth house style may have influenced contemporary Majiayao culture to the southwest.

Cultural Diversification: Regional Developments (2800-2500 BCE)

Following the Haishengbulang period, the region saw the emergence of several distinct cultural traditions:

### Ashang Culture

Developing from Haishengbulang traditions in Baotou and Ordos regions, Ashang culture (2800-2500 BCE) is characterized by:
– Predominance of gray pottery with basket and cord markings
– New vessel forms like small-mouthed flat-bottom bottles
– Continued use of microlithic tools
– Elaborate stone-walled settlements and ritual structures

The most striking developments occurred in settlement architecture. Sites like Zhaizita featured massive stone enclosure walls with complex gate systems. Along a 60 km stretch of the Yellow River’s north bank, six Ashang culture sites revealed stone-walled compounds containing possible ritual platforms.

The most impressive ritual structures appear at sites like Shamujia, Heimaban, and Weijun. These include:
– Stone platforms with concentric circular features
– Aligned stone cairns (Ashang site)
– Large ceremonial complexes with axial layouts (Weijun site)

These constructions suggest the Daqing Mountains foothills became an important ceremonial center for Ashang communities.

### Yijing Cultural Remains

In central Shanxi, the Yijing-type remains (named after the Taiyuan site) represent a distinct cultural tradition featuring:
– Fine-paste gray pottery with basket and cord markings
– Rich painted pottery tradition using multiple colors
– Unique vessel forms like small-mouthed double-handled jars

The Baiyan site sequence suggests this tradition developed through several phases between 3300-2500 BCE, roughly contemporary with Haishengbulang and Ashang cultures.

### Xueshan I Culture

Distributed around Zhangjiakou and Beijing’s western suburbs, Xueshan I culture shows strong northeastern influences in its:
– Shell-tempered reddish-brown pottery
– Double-handled jars with unique forms
– Burial practices resembling Xiaoheyan culture

The Jiangjialiang cemetery, with 70 well-ordered graves featuring flexed burials and jade pig-dragon ornaments, provides remarkable insights into this culture’s mortuary practices and spiritual beliefs.

Conclusion: Legacy and Significance

The Neolithic cultures of Inner Mongolia and northern China represent a fascinating chapter in East Asian prehistory, showcasing:
1. The development of distinct regional traditions within a broader northern cultural sphere
2. Innovative adaptations to local environments, seen in architecture and subsistence strategies
3. Complex interregional networks of cultural exchange
4. Early manifestations of social complexity in settlement patterns and ritual architecture

These cultures not only shaped subsequent Bronze Age developments in the region but also contributed to the rich tapestry of Chinese civilization’s northern roots. Their legacy continues to inform our understanding of how diverse regional traditions interacted to form larger cultural wholes in ancient East Asia.