The Fractured Landscape of the Late Han

The late Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 CE) was a period of fragmentation and warlordism, where central authority crumbled and regional strongmen vied for dominance. Against this backdrop, the rivalry between Liu Bei, Lü Bu, and other warlords unfolded—a saga of shifting alliances, betrayals, and desperate survival.

Liu Bei, a distant relative of the Han imperial family, had risen from humble origins to become a minor warlord, relying on his reputation for benevolence and the loyalty of his sworn brothers, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei. Meanwhile, Lü Bu, a fearsome warrior known as the “Flying General,” was infamous for his treachery, having betrayed both Ding Yuan and Dong Zhuo, his former patrons.

By the early 190s, the warlord Cao Cao had emerged as a dominant figure, consolidating power in northern China. Yet the struggle for control of Xu Province (modern Jiangsu and Shandong) would bring Liu Bei and Lü Bu into direct conflict—a clash that revealed the brutal pragmatism of the era.

Lü Bu’s Ambition and the Fall of Xiaopei

In 196 CE, Liu Bei hosted Lü Bu in Xu Province after the latter had been driven from his previous stronghold. Though initially grateful, Lü Bu soon grew resentful of Liu Bei’s growing influence. When Liu Bei raised an army of over 10,000 men in the nearby city of Xiaopei, Lü Bu saw it as a threat.

“That big-eared rat is just a guest here—how dare he act so boldly!” Lü Bu reportedly spat, conveniently forgetting his own reliance on Liu Bei’s hospitality. Determined to eliminate the perceived danger, he launched a surprise attack on Xiaopei.

Outmatched, Liu Bei was forced to flee. With few options, he turned to his generals and lamented the lack of strategic advisors. Unlike Cao Cao, who had a cadre of brilliant tacticians like Guo Jia and Xun Yu, Liu Bei had to personally oversee both military and logistical decisions—a burden that weighed heavily on him.

The Calculated Retreat to Cao Cao

Facing annihilation, Liu Bei made a fateful choice: he would seek refuge with Cao Cao. His reasoning was coldly pragmatic:

– Yuan Shao (in Hebei) was too distant.
– Yuan Shu (in Huainan) was morally unreliable.
– Liu Biao (in Jing Province) might welcome him, but the journey was perilous.

Thus, Cao Cao—despite being a future rival—was the only viable option.

Upon arrival, Cao Cao’s advisors debated Liu Bei’s fate. Some urged his execution, arguing he was too ambitious to leave alive. But strategist Guo Jia cautioned that killing Liu Bei would deter other talents from joining Cao Cao’s cause. Ultimately, Cao Cao decided to monitor Liu Bei closely, believing he could be controlled.

Liu Bei, aware of the danger, played the fool—dropping his chopsticks during a thunderstorm to feign cowardice. Yet Cao Cao, ever perceptive, remained suspicious.

The Chaos of Warlord Politics

While Liu Bei bided his time, other conflicts erupted. In 197 CE, Cao Cao faced a revolt from Zhang Xiu, a minor warlord whose surrender had been secured through diplomacy. The catalyst? Cao Cao’s indiscretion with Zhang Xiu’s widowed aunt, a woman Zhang secretly loved. Humiliated, Zhang Xiu launched a surprise attack, nearly killing Cao Cao. The battle cost Cao his eldest son, Cao Ang, and his bodyguard Dian Wei, but he ultimately repelled Zhang Xiu, who fled to Liu Biao.

Meanwhile, in Shouchun, Yuan Shu declared himself emperor—a move widely mocked as delusional. His extravagant court and brutal taxation sparked famine, reducing his realm to cannibalism. Scholars like Kong Rong dismissed him as a “corpse in a tomb,” and his short-lived “dynasty” collapsed by 199 CE.

The Legacy of Survival and Strategy

Liu Bei’s flight to Cao Cao was a temporary setback. By 200 CE, he would break away, eventually founding the Shu Han state during the Three Kingdoms period. His ability to navigate betrayal and adapt to shifting alliances became legendary, embodying the era’s ruthless pragmatism.

Lü Bu, meanwhile, met his end in 198 CE, executed by Cao Cao after yet another betrayal. His story serves as a cautionary tale about the limits of sheer martial prowess without loyalty or strategy.

The struggles of this period—marked by shifting loyalties, strategic gambits, and the rise of figures like Liu Bei—would shape Chinese history for centuries, immortalized in texts like Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Their lessons in leadership, survival, and the cost of ambition remain strikingly relevant today.