The Strategic Deception of Cao Cao

In the turbulent years of the late Eastern Han dynasty, warlords vied for power through both military might and cunning stratagems. One such master of deception was Cao Cao, whose campaign against Hanzhong in 215 CE was not what it seemed. While he publicly declared his intention to subdue the religious leader Zhang Lu, his true objective lay elsewhere.

Cao Cao understood that announcing an invasion of Hanzhong would provoke unrest among the smaller warlords in Shaanxi. His real aim was to lure them into rebellion, allowing him to crush them decisively. As expected, warlords like Ma Chao rose in defiance, only to be swiftly defeated. With his western flank secured, Cao Cao withdrew to his base in Ye, only to pivot southward toward Sun Quan’s territories in a feigned offensive.

The Fragile Alliance Between Sun Quan and Liu Bei

Sun Quan and Liu Bei had formed a tenuous alliance against their common enemy, Cao Cao, but mutual distrust simmered beneath the surface. When Sun Quan, facing Cao Cao’s southern advance, urgently requested Liu Bei’s aid, Liu Bei’s advisor Pang Tong saw an opportunity.

Pang Tong, known as the “Young Phoenix” (a counterpart to Zhuge Liang’s “Sleeping Dragon”), proposed a daring plan: instead of aiding Sun Quan, Liu Bei should exploit the chaos to seize the prosperous region of Yi Province (modern Sichuan) from its ruler, Liu Zhang. Liu Bei had already entered Yi Province under the pretense of helping Liu Zhang against Zhang Lu but had stalled his forces at Jia Meng, raising suspicions.

The Betrayal and Fall of Liu Zhang

Liu Bei’s deception deepened when he requested additional troops from Liu Zhang, claiming he needed to return to Jing Province to defend against Cao Cao. Trusting Liu Bei’s goodwill, Liu Zhang granted half the requested soldiers—unaware that this was part of a ruse.

The plot unraveled when Zhang Song, a conspirator within Liu Zhang’s court, was betrayed by his own brother. Zhang Song’s secret correspondence with Liu Bei was exposed, leading to his execution. Realizing the betrayal, Liu Zhang ordered his generals to block Liu Bei’s movements—but it was too late. Liu Bei, feigning retreat, turned on Liu Zhang’s forces, executing key generals and marching toward Chengdu.

The Siege of Chengdu and Liu Zhang’s Surrender

Despite fierce resistance at Luo Castle, where Pang Tong tragically fell in battle, Liu Bei’s forces, reinforced by Zhuge Liang, Zhang Fei, and Zhao Yun, eventually surrounded Chengdu. The arrival of the famed warrior Ma Chao, who had fled from Cao Cao, further demoralized Liu Zhang’s defenders.

Faced with overwhelming odds and unwilling to prolong the suffering of his people, the compassionate but weak Liu Zhang surrendered. Liu Bei, now master of Yi Province, faced immediate challenges: local resentment over his underhanded tactics and escalating tensions with Sun Quan over disputed Jing Province territories.

The Aftermath: Shifting Alliances and Cao Cao’s Calculations

Sun Quan, furious at Liu Bei’s refusal to return Jing Province’s southern territories, launched a military campaign to reclaim them. Meanwhile, Cao Cao, seizing the opportunity, marched toward Hanzhong. Zhang Lu, leader of the Five Pecks of Rice religious movement, surrendered without resistance, leaving his treasure stores intact as a gesture of submission.

Cao Cao’s advisor Sima Yi urged an immediate invasion of Yi Province, arguing that Liu Bei’s hold was tenuous. But Cao Cao, now in his sixties and preoccupied with succession struggles between his sons Cao Pi and Cao Zhi, hesitated. His empire’s stability hinged on resolving internal disputes—not expanding further.

Legacy and Historical Reflections

Liu Bei’s conquest of Yi Province marked a pivotal moment in the Three Kingdoms era, establishing the Shu-Han kingdom. Yet his methods—betrayal, deception, and opportunism—reveal the brutal pragmatism of the age. Cao Cao’s restraint in not pressing into Yi Province underscores the delicate balance of power and the personal dilemmas faced by these warlords.

The events of 214–215 CE highlight the fragile nature of alliances, the ruthlessness of ambition, and the human cost of empire-building. Liu Bei’s rise came at the expense of trust, while Cao Cao’s caution preserved his legacy but left future conflicts unresolved. These maneuvers set the stage for the protracted wars that would define the Three Kingdoms period—a testament to the enduring complexity of power, loyalty, and survival in ancient China.