The Strategic Prelude to the Fifth Northern Expedition

In the twelfth year of the Jianxing era (234 CE), Zhuge Liang, the legendary strategist of Shu Han, launched his fifth and final Northern Expedition against the rival state of Wei. After two years of meticulous preparation, he led a formidable force of 100,000 troops through the treacherous Xie Valley, advancing toward the banks of the Wei River. This campaign followed a series of earlier attempts, including the disastrous defeat at Jieting and the tactical withdrawal from Chencang.

Unlike previous expeditions, this one benefited from Zhuge Liang’s ingenious logistical innovations—the “wooden ox” and “gliding horse”—wheeled transport devices that ensured smooth supply lines. His army reached Wugong, a settlement on the southern bank of the Wei River (historical records suggest the river’s course differed from modern geography). Here, Zhuge Liang faced his perennial adversary, Sima Yi of Wei, in a high-stakes game of military chess.

The Gambit at the Wei River

Sima Yi, Wei’s supreme commander, made a counterintuitive decision: instead of fortifying the northern bank to ambush Shu forces mid-crossing, he ordered his troops to cross the river entirely. His officers speculated he was invoking the ancient “back-to-the-river” tactic, but Sima Yi’s true motive was psychological warfare. He wagered that Zhuge Liang, known for methodical campaigns, would avoid a direct eastern assault and instead march west toward Wuzhang Plains—a terrain suited for prolonged warfare.

His gamble proved correct. Zhuge Liang, initially inclined toward a swift eastern strike, shifted westward after securing a fragile alliance with Wu. The plan was coordinated: while Shu engaged Wei at Wuzhang, Wu would attack Hefei, forcing Wei into a two-front war.

The Stalemate and Shu’s Self-Sufficiency

At Wuzhang, Zhuge Liang implemented a “tuntian” (military farming) policy, transforming his soldiers into farmers. This move aimed to project patience, goading Sima Yi into rash action. But Sima Yi, privy to Shu’s internal strife via spies, refused to take the bait. “Let them fracture from within,” he mused, aware that prolonged encampment would exacerbate Shu’s factional rivalries.

Meanwhile, Wu’s assault on Hefei faltered. Despite numerical superiority, Wu’s forces, led by Sun Quan, retreated after just two months—far shorter than the six Zhuge Liang had hoped for. Worse, Wei’s emperor, Cao Rui, personally reinforced Hefei, crushing Wu’s morale. The collapse of this alliance shattered Zhuge Liang’s strategy.

The Fading Light of a Strategist

By this time, Zhuge Liang’s health was deteriorating. Years of overwork had taken their toll; he struggled to speak without pauses, a sign of exhaustion. His usually unshakable composure frayed—unthinkable for a man famed for his stoicism. Sima Yi noticed the反常: Shu’s challenges grew erratic, a departure from Zhuge Liang’s trademark precision. When Shu sent women’s garments to mock Wei’s passivity, Sima Yi feigned outrage but privately rejoiced: his rival was desperate.

The Final Audience and a Succession Plan

As Zhuge Liang lay bedridden, Shu’s emperor Liu Shan sent minister Li Fu to discuss state affairs. Their exchange revealed the ruler’s preoccupation with trivialities, deepening Zhuge Liang’s忧虑. Before Li Fu departed, Zhuge Liang handed him a single character: “愍” (mǐn), the posthumous title he’d chosen for the deposed Han emperor Liu Xie—symbolizing pity for a fallen dynasty.

But Li Fu returned days later, realizing he’d forgotten the most critical question: who should succeed Zhuge Liang? “Jiang Wan,” came the immediate reply, followed by “Fei Yi.” When pressed further, Zhuge Liang fell silent. On August 28, 234 CE, the “Crouching Dragon” died at age 54, his final campaign unfinished.

Legacy: The Myth and the Man

Zhuge Liang’s death marked the end of Shu’s offensive ambitions. His reputation, however, transcended defeat. Romanticized in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, he became synonymous with wisdom and loyalty. Yet history paints a nuanced portrait: a brilliant but overburdened leader whose meticulousness bordered on micromanagement (he personally approved every corporal punishment).

Modern leaders still study his innovations and missteps—the “tuntian” system inspired later military-agricultural models, while his centralized governance highlighted the perils of burnout. At Wuzhang, two titans clashed not just on the battlefield, but in a war of endurance. Sima Yi’s victory was one of patience over prowess, a lesson in outlasting rather than outfighting.

Zhuge Liang’s final campaign, though tactically inconclusive, cemented his legend. In life, he sought to restore the Han; in death, he became its most enduring symbol.