The Historical Stage Is Set

In the mid-19th century, the Qing Dynasty found itself at a critical juncture. The Opium Wars had exposed China’s military weakness, while the Taiping Rebellion ravaged the southern provinces, challenging the very legitimacy of Manchu rule. Emperor Xianfeng, a ruler increasingly overwhelmed by these crises, sought refuge in the Rehe Hunting Lodge in Chengde, far from the besieged capital of Beijing. His health deteriorating, the emperor faced not only external threats but also an internal power vacuum that would soon erupt into one of the most significant political struggles of late imperial China.

The imperial court traditionally operated through a delicate balance between the emperor, his ministers, and the imperial clan. With Xianfeng increasingly incapacitated, this balance began to shift dramatically. Two key figures emerged as central players: Sushun, a powerful minister who had gained the emperor’s trust through his administrative competence and forceful personality, and the imperial consorts who would soon become empresses dowager. The stage was set for a confrontation that would determine the future direction of the Qing government.

The First Moves in a Dangerous Game

Following Emperor Xianfeng’s death in 1861, the immediate question of succession brought tensions to the surface. The emperor’s only son, a child of five, was designated as the new emperor, requiring regents to govern during his minority. This created an unprecedented situation in Qing history—traditionally, imperial princes rather than ministers would assume such responsibilities, but Sushun and his allies had positioned themselves to control the regency.

The first significant confrontation occurred over the titles and status of the child emperor’s mother and the principal empress. Sushun successfully engineered that the two women would receive their titles as empresses dowager on different days, with the biological mother receiving hers a day later than the principal empress. This seemingly minor protocol matter carried profound symbolic importance, establishing a hierarchy between the two women that Sushun believed would work to his advantage.

The emperor’s mother, residing in the western chamber of the Yanbo zhongshuang Hall, naturally became known as the “Western Empress Dowager” . In court discussions, officials frequently referred to the “Western” one while rarely mentioning the “Eastern,” subtly reinforcing the perceived hierarchy that Sushun had engineered.

The Battle Over Governance Authority

Sushun’s victory in establishing ceremonial precedence proved incomplete when the real question of governance emerged. The empresses dowager proposed that all imperial edicts would require their seal as evidence of review, a crucial check on ministerial power. Sushun initially resisted, insisting that the empresses could only affix their seals without altering content and that memorials from government offices would not be submitted for their review beforehand.

The Western Empress Dowager recognized that such arrangements would reduce their role to mere figureheads. She stood firm, eventually forcing Sushun to concede that the empresses would have genuine review authority over state documents. This represented a significant victory for the imperial women, establishing their right to participate meaningfully in governance despite Qing traditions that generally excluded women from political affairs.

Surprisingly, after this defeat, Sushun remained confident of his position. He believed the empresses lacked the experience and ability to govern effectively and that eventually they would have to rely on his expertise. For her part, the Western Empress Dowager demonstrated political acumen by not overreaching—she reviewed documents carefully but avoided appearing to challenge ministerial authority directly, creating an appearance of harmonious cooperation that even skeptical observers acknowledged as potentially workable.

The Shifting Alliances of Court Politics

As the regency government appeared to stabilize under Sushun’s leadership, court officials began recalculating their positions. Many who had previously maintained distance from Sushun’s faction now moved closer, believing his position secure. This realignment naturally drew them away from Prince Gong, the emperor’s brother who represented an alternative power center in Beijing.

Prince Gong had remained in the capital during the imperial retreat to Rehe, where he negotiated with foreign powers after the Anglo-French occupation of Beijing. His successful diplomacy and administration of the capital had earned him significant prestige, making him a natural counterweight to Sushun’s authority. The growing distance between court officials and Prince Gong’s faction reflected the widespread assumption that Sushun would dominate the regency.

Only the Western Empress Dowager understood that Sushun’s position remained precarious. From the earliest days in the Yanbo zhongshuang Hall, she recognized the need to establish a formal system of “垂帘” or “behind the curtain” governance, where empresses dowager would exercise power directly rather than through ministers. This system had historical precedent in Chinese history but was unfamiliar in Qing practice.

The Secret Conspiracy Takes Shape

The Eastern Empress Dowager initially resisted the proposal for direct rule, noting that the current arrangement of “combined regency and ministerial assistance” seemed functional. The Western Empress Dowager warned that Sushun’s restraint was temporary and that his true ambitions would emerge over time. Her persuasive arguments gradually won over her co-regent, though practical obstacles remained formidable.

The imperial residence itself presented security challenges. The Western Empress Dowager discovered that many eunuchs in the Yanbo zhongshuang Hall were reporting to Sushun, forcing extreme caution in communications. For particularly sensitive discussions, the two empresses would pretend to examine goldfish in a large green-glazed jar in the rear courtyard, speaking in whispers to avoid detection.

After numerous such clandestine meetings, the Eastern Empress Dowager finally agreed that they must consult Prince Gong. This precisely aligned with the Western Empress Dowager’s strategy—to establish communication with Prince Gong and coordinate internal and external pressure to remove Sushun. The challenge lay in establishing secure communication channels between the isolated Rehe court and Beijing.

The Eunuch Incident and Its Consequences

Amid these high-stakes political maneuvers, a seemingly minor incident involving palace eunuchs unexpectedly influenced the power dynamics. A eunuch named Little Anzi clashed with Shuangxi, a senior palace maid of respectable background. Their argument escalated until Little Anzi used inappropriate language toward her, causing deep offense.

The incident required delicate handling because both individuals had powerful patrons. Shuangxi enjoyed the favor of the Eastern Empress Dowager, while Little Anzi served the Western Empress Dowager. When the matter reached the empresses, the Western Empress Dowager faced a dilemma: punishing her own servant too harshly might weaken her position, while appearing to protect him would alienate her co-regent.

She ultimately ordered Little Anzi beaten and sent back to Beijing for assignment to menial duties—a punishment severe enough to satisfy protocol but not so harsh as to eliminate a potentially useful subordinate. This incident demonstrated her growing political skill in balancing competing interests while maintaining her authority.

The Road to Confrontation

The removal of Little Anzi to Beijing, though presented as punishment, inadvertently created an opportunity. The Western Empress Dowager recognized that trusted personnel moving between Rehe and Beijing could carry messages to Prince Gong. While she didn’t initially use Little Anzi for this purpose, the incident highlighted the possibility of establishing communication channels through seemingly routine personnel movements.

Meanwhile, the apparent stability of Sushun’s regency masked growing tensions. Officials continued to align with what they perceived as the winning faction, while the empresses dowager quietly laid groundwork for their challenge to ministerial authority. Prince Gong in Beijing maintained his administration of the capital while awaiting opportunity to assert his legitimate role in governance.

The stage was set for the dramatic coup that would eventually unfold—the Xinyou Coup of 1861 that would topple Sushun’s regency and establish the empresses dowager as actual rulers of China with Prince Gong as their chief minister. This political revolution would shape China’s governance for the next half-century, particularly through the dominance of the Western Empress Dowager, who would become known to history as Empress Dowager Cixi.

Cultural and Social Implications

The power struggle between the empresses dowager and Sushun represented more than just a contest between individuals—it reflected broader tensions in Qing society. The traditional Confucian framework emphasized clear gender roles with women excluded from formal political power, yet practical circumstances created opportunities for powerful women to exercise influence behind the scenes.

The eventual victory of the empresses dowager established a precedent for female leadership that would influence Chinese politics for decades. It demonstrated that determined women could navigate the complex web of court politics and overcome institutional barriers to power. At the same time, the need for the empresses to govern “from behind the curtain” acknowledged persistent cultural constraints on female authority.

The conflict also highlighted the changing nature of Qing governance. The old Manchu elite represented by Sushun faced challenges from both the imperial clan and the innovative approach of the empresses dowager, who proved willing to work with Han Chinese officials and adapt to changing circumstances. This flexibility would become increasingly important as China faced growing external pressures in the coming decades.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The resolution of the 1861 power struggle established the pattern of Qing governance for the remainder of the dynasty. The empresses dowager, particularly the Western Empress Dowager , would dominate Chinese politics until the early 20th century, overseeing periods of reform, reaction, and ultimately revolution.

Prince Gong’s alliance with the empresses dowager brought a more pragmatic approach to foreign relations, leading to the Self-Strengthening Movement that sought to adopt Western technology while preserving Chinese institutions. This policy reflected lessons learned from the political crisis—that adaptation was necessary for survival, but too much change could destabilize the system.

The coup also demonstrated the enduring importance of symbolic authority in Chinese politics. Sushun had understood the significance of ceremonial precedence but underestimated the determination of the empresses dowager to translate formal status into actual power. Their success established that in Qing politics, control over the emperor—even a child emperor—provided the ultimate legitimacy, regardless of traditional gender roles or ministerial authority.

Most importantly, the events of 1861 set China on a path of cautious modernization under conservative leadership—a approach that would achieve some successes but ultimately prove inadequate to the challenges of the 20th century. The political system that emerged from the power struggle would govern China through its final decades as an imperial power, shaping the nation’s encounter with modernity and its eventual revolutionary transformation.