A Throne in Peril: The Qing Dynasty’s Uncertain Moment

In the winter of 1874, the Qing Empire faced a constitutional crisis that would test its political structures and reveal the delicate balance of power within the Forbidden City. The young Tongzhi Emperor, just nineteen years old, had contracted smallpox—a disease that carried particular dread in imperial circles, not only for its physical toll but for its potential to destabilize the carefully maintained hierarchy of the world’s largest bureaucracy. The emperor’s illness came at a critical juncture in Qing history, as the empire was still recovering from the devastation of the Taiping Rebellion and navigating the increasing pressures of foreign encroachment. The court found itself confronting not just a medical emergency, but a profound administrative challenge: how to maintain the machinery of government when the Son of Heaven himself lay incapacitated.

The Qing political system had been designed around the absolute authority of the emperor, with all state affairs ultimately requiring imperial approval. This centralized structure, while effective under strong rulers, created vulnerabilities during succession crises or periods of regency. The Tongzhi Emperor’s reign had begun under the regency of his mother, the Empress Dowager Cixi, and her co-regent, the Empress Dowager Ci’an, following the death of the Xianfeng Emperor in 1861. The two dowagers had exercised power through the “regency behind the curtain” system, which had only recently ended as the young emperor came of age. Now, with his sudden illness, the court faced the unprecedented situation of potentially returning to a regency arrangement for an adult emperor.

The Imperial Sickroom Becomes a Political Arena

The crisis unfolded with dramatic intensity in the inner chambers of the Forbidden City. After initial consultations with physicians, the emperor summoned fifteen officials whose names appeared on a crucial memorial. The two empress dowagers sat solemnly on either side of the imperial couch, their composed expressions masking the political calculations undoubtedly occurring beneath the surface. Prince Gong, the emperor’s uncle and a leading statesman, immediately recognized that the emperor had approved their petition—a realization confirmed when the monarch spoke with surprising clarity about the situation.

The emperor’s words revealed both his physical weakness and his understanding of constitutional necessities: “State affairs cannot be neglected for a single day. Having Grand Tutor Li draft memorials was a temporary measure. During these hundred days, I wish to request that the two empress dowagers review documents on my behalf. After this period, I will resume my normal duties properly.” Prince Gong, speaking for all present, accepted this arrangement with the customary acknowledgment of imperial authority.

What followed was a masterclass in political theater. The emperor issued a stern warning to Prince Gong: “Prince Gong must serve with consistent dedication. He must absolutely avoid falling into previous habits!” This reference to past conflicts between the emperor and his uncle underscored the tensions that had characterized their relationship, particularly regarding the controversial cessation of imperial garden construction projects. The emperor’s admonition served as both a personal rebuke and a public reminder of the prince’s sometimes precarious position.

Then Empress Dowager Cixi entered the conversation with a carefully crafted narrative about the previous day’s proceedings: “Yesterday when you submitted your memorial, because the matter was significant, I found it inconvenient to grant approval immediately and asked you to first report to the emperor.” Turning to the emperor, she explained, “The meeting yesterday in the Western Warmth Chamber was requested by the Grand Council and imperial advisors. At that time, I feared it would trouble your mind, so I did not inform you.” This account, though almost certainly fabricated, was accepted without challenge—a testament to Cixi’s political acumen and the courtiers’ understanding of where power truly resided.

Crafting a Constitutional Solution

With the regency established in principle, practical governance questions immediately arose. The empress dowagers could review memorials and meet with the Grand Council, but certain imperial functions presented constitutional difficulties. New Year celebrations were approaching, requiring decisions about how to handle ceremonies that traditionally required the emperor’s personal participation. The ritual sacrifices at the Imperial Ancestral Temple needed to be performed by a prince representing the emperor. The New Year’s Day court congratulations ceremony required resolution—would it be canceled? How would the imperial audiences for civil service appointments be handled? Who would set examination questions for official assignments?

The officials developed a four-point plan to address these challenges: New Year’s celebrations and classical lectures would be temporarily suspended; sacrifices at the suburban altars would be performed by representatives appointed by the empress dowagers; examination questions would be prepared by the Grand Council; and the imperial audiences for officials would be replaced with a validation process. This last measure was particularly significant, as it acknowledged the constitutional limitation that prevented the empress dowagers from personally receiving male officials from outside the court—a restriction that highlighted the gendered nature of Qing political culture.

The official edict, issued that same day through the government gazette, presented the regency as a temporary measure necessitated by the emperor’s smallpox diagnosis. It emphasized that the emperor himself had repeatedly requested the empress dowagers’ assistance, framing the arrangement as evidence of filial devotion rather than political necessity. The language carefully balanced concerns about imperial authority with practical governance needs, presenting the regency as both extraordinary and properly constituted.

The Mechanics of Regency Government

The practical implementation of the regency began the following day, with the two empress dowagers conducting business from the Shu Fang Zhai and holding audiences with the Grand Council in the Western Warmth Chamber of the Hall of Mental Cultivation. This return to the “regency behind the curtain” arrangement represented a significant shift in the distribution of power within the court. Empress Dowager Cixi, in particular, seized the opportunity to consolidate her influence and reward supporters.

One of her first actions addressed a vacancy that had been left unresolved due to tensions between the emperor and Prince Gong. The position of Grand Secretary of the Wenhua Hall, previously held by the late Ruilin, needed filling. Following established protocol, Li Hongzhang was transferred from Wuying Hall to Wenhua Hall, Wenxiang moved from Tiren Hall to Wuying Hall, and Baojun received appointment as Grand Secretary of the Tiren Hall. This reshuffling of senior positions demonstrated Cixi’s understanding of bureaucratic norms and her willingness to work within established systems while advancing her political allies.

The musical chairs of high office continued with Baojun retaining supervision of the Ministry of Personnel despite his promotion, while Yinggui transferred from the Ministry of War to head the Ministry of Personnel. Guangshou, previously serving at the Hongde Hall, moved from the position of Left Censor-in-Chief to head the Ministry of War. When the vacancy for Left Censor-in-Chief arose, Cixi demonstrated her political acumen by selecting Kuiling, whose previous promotion had been blocked by the emperor during the dispute over the garden construction project. This appointment served as both a reward for a loyal official and a subtle rebuke to the emperor’s earlier actions.

Medical Treatment and Court Politics

While political maneuvers occupied the court, the emperor’s medical condition remained precarious. The imperial physicians, Li Deli and Zhuang Shouhe, received extraordinary rewards for their services—promotions that raised eyebrows among court eunuchs familiar with medical matters. Li Deli received eligibility for third or fourth-rank capital appointments, while Zhuang Shouhe became eligible for fourth or fifth-rank positions. These unusually generous rewards seemed disproportionate to their actual medical achievements, as the emperor’s condition showed little improvement.

The emperor’s symptoms—poor appetite, limited rest, and only brief periods of sound sleep—concerned observers. Li Deli diagnosed “insufficient primordial yang and lack of communication between heart and kidneys,” prescribing a “Protect the Origin Decoction” containing deer antler and cinnamon. This treatment regimen sparked quiet criticism among experienced eunuchs, who questioned the use of such heating supplements for a nineteen-year-old whose constitution should theoretically have been robust.

Outside the inner court, officials focused on the published medical bulletins rather than the treatment details. The diagnosis of “insufficient primordial yang” seemed to justify the use of strengthening tonics, but the emperor’s continued decline suggested either an inaccurate diagnosis or ineffective treatment. The medical management of the emperor’s illness became intertwined with political considerations, as different factions within the court interpreted his condition through their respective lenses of interest and expertise.

The Cultural Context of Imperial Illness

The emperor’s smallpox diagnosis carried particular cultural significance in Qing China. The disease had affected several previous emperors, most notably the Shunzhi Emperor, who reportedly died from it in 1661. The Kangxi Emperor had survived smallpox in childhood, which contributed to his selection as successor since he was presumed to have lifelong immunity. This historical context made the Tongzhi Emperor’s illness particularly ominous, invoking memories of previous succession crises.

Smallpox also occupied a complex place in Chinese medical history. Traditional Chinese medicine approached the disease through its own conceptual framework, focusing on balancing energies and expelling toxins rather than the Western approach of vaccination, which had been introduced to China but not yet widely adopted. The treatment debate surrounding the emperor thus reflected broader tensions between traditional medical practices and emerging Western approaches.

The court’s response to the crisis also demonstrated the continuing importance of ritual in Qing governance. The careful attention to ceremonial details—which sacrifices required imperial participation, how New Year celebrations should be modified, which officials could be received by the empress dowagers—reflected the Confucian principle that proper ritual observance was essential to maintaining cosmological and political order. Even in crisis, the court maintained its commitment to these forms, understanding that the appearance of continuity was as important as the reality of administrative function.

The Regency’s Broader Implications

The 1874 regency occurred during a period of significant transition for the Qing dynasty. The empire was still recovering from the massive upheaval of the Taiping Rebellion , which had devastated central China and claimed millions of lives. The rebellion had exposed weaknesses in Qing military and administrative systems, leading to increased regional power for Han Chinese officials like Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang. The court’s ability to manage the regency crisis effectively would be seen as a test of its continued viability as a central governing institution.

Internationally, the Qing was navigating increasingly complex relations with foreign powers. The Second Opium War had concluded with the Convention of Peking, which expanded foreign access to Chinese territory and markets. The Tongzhi Restoration, an effort to strengthen the dynasty through administrative and military modernization, was underway but facing significant challenges. The emperor’s illness threatened to disrupt these efforts at a critical moment, potentially undermining confidence in Qing leadership both domestically and internationally.

The regency also had implications for the balance of power between Manchu and Han elites within the Qing system. The appointment decisions made during this period reflected careful consideration of ethnic dimensions, particularly regarding the position of Governor-General of Liangguang. This office controlled significant revenues connected to the imperial household and Inner Court, making its assignment to a Han official potentially controversial. The resolution of this appointment in favor of Yinghan, a Manchu official, demonstrated the continuing importance of ethnic considerations in high-level appointments.

Legacy of the Hundred-Day Regency

The 1874 regency, though intended as a temporary measure, ultimately had permanent consequences. The Tongzhi Emperor never recovered his health, dying on January 12, 1875. His death without an heir precipitated another succession crisis, resolved by the installation of his three-year-old cousin as the Guangxu Emperor—a decision that ensured the continuation of the empress dowagers’ regency and consolidated Cixi’s power for decades to come.

The constitutional precedents established during the hundred-day regency influenced later Qing governance practices. The mechanisms developed for handling imperial functions during the emperor’s illness provided a template for future regencies, including that of the Guangxu Emperor. The careful balancing of practical administration with ritual requirements demonstrated how the Qing system could adapt to extraordinary circumstances while maintaining the forms of traditional governance.

The medical aspects of the crisis also had lasting implications. The emperor’s death from smallpox, despite the efforts of imperial physicians, highlighted the limitations of traditional Chinese medicine in treating certain diseases. This realization contributed to growing interest in Western medical practices among some elite circles, though traditional approaches remained dominant in court circles until the dynasty’s final years.

Modern Reflections on Power and Protocol

The 1874 regency crisis offers fascinating insights into the operation of power in late imperial China. The complex dance between the emperor, the empress dowagers, and senior officials reveals a political system that balanced absolute monarchy with practical constraints. The resolution of the crisis through established bureaucratic mechanisms, rather than overt power grabs, suggests a system with significant institutional resilience despite its personalistic elements.

The episode also illuminates the changing nature of Qing governance in the late nineteenth century. The careful attention to constitutional forms, even during a medical emergency, reflects the system’s sophistication and its ability to manage transitions without complete breakdown. At the same time, the political maneuvering around appointments and rewards shows how personal networks and factional interests continued to shape outcomes within the formal bureaucratic structure.

From a comparative perspective, the Qing response to leadership crisis differs interestingly from contemporary Western approaches to regency and succession. While European monarchies developed elaborate legal frameworks for regencies, the Qing system relied more on precedent and adaptation within existing structures. This flexibility allowed for effective crisis management but also created opportunities for power consolidation by figures like Empress Dowager Cixi.

The 1874 regency remains historically significant as both a specific response to crisis and a reflection of broader patterns in late Qing politics. It demonstrates the continuing vitality of Qing governance institutions even as they faced unprecedented internal and external challenges. The crisis management exhibited during this period suggests that the dynasty possessed significant administrative capabilities, though these would ultimately prove insufficient to address the monumental challenges that would emerge in subsequent decades.

The story of the hundred-day regency ultimately serves as a poignant reminder of the human dimension of history—a young emperor struck down at the beginning of his reign, physicians struggling against a disease they poorly understood, and courtiers balancing loyalty, ambition, and protocol in a system that demanded absolute conformity even as it underwent profound transformation. This intersection of personal tragedy and political calculation encapsulates the complex reality of power in the final century of China’s imperial system.