A Realm in Peril: The Qing Dynasty’s Precarious Position

In the waning decades of the 19th century, the Qing Dynasty found itself navigating increasingly treacherous waters. The imperial court, once the unchallenged center of East Asian power, now faced external threats and internal decay that tested its very foundations. Western imperialism, coupled with regional conflicts, placed enormous strain on a system already struggling with modernization and reform. Within the Forbidden City, the highest echelons of power were consumed by debates over how to preserve China’s sovereignty while acknowledging the reality of foreign military and technological superiority.

The imperial government operated through two critical institutions: the Grand Council, which handled military and strategic affairs, and the Zongli Yamen, responsible for foreign relations. These bodies were staffed by princes and high officials who recognized the gravity of their circumstances. Most felt the weight of their responsibilities keenly, aware that missteps could lead to national humiliation or even the collapse of the dynasty. Only a small minority, including officials like Sun Yuwen, seemed content to pursue personal advancement without regard for the mounting crises.

This period represented a fundamental challenge to China’s traditional worldview. The Middle Kingdom had long considered itself the center of civilization, but now found itself forced to negotiate with what it had previously regarded as barbarian nations. The psychological impact of this reversal cannot be overstated—it forced a reevaluation of China’s place in the world and sparked intense debates about how to respond to these unprecedented challenges.

The Princely Rivalry: Chun Versus Gong

At the heart of the Qing court’s deliberations stood the imperial princes, particularly Prince Chun and the former leading statesman Prince Gong. The comparison between these two figures became a subject of intense discussion among officials and commentators. While Prince Chun currently held power, many quietly believed that Prince Gong—who had been dismissed from his positions years earlier—possessed superior diplomatic skills and political acumen.

Prince Gong had previously navigated similar crises during the Second Opium War and had helped establish China’s first proper foreign affairs office. His removal from power had created a vacuum in diplomatic leadership that Prince Chun struggled to fill. The criticism that “Prince Chun is truly not equal to Prince Gong” circulated privately among officials, though such opinions remained carefully guarded, as expressing them openly would have been considered highly inappropriate and potentially dangerous.

This comparison reflected deeper tensions within the Qing leadership about how to handle foreign relations. Prince Gong had represented a more pragmatic approach—willing to engage with foreign powers and learn from Western technology and methods. Prince Chun, while recognizing the necessity of some engagement, maintained a more traditional outlook that made compromise more difficult.

The Burden of Leadership: Prince Chun’s Dilemma

Prince Chun found himself in an increasingly untenable position as the crises multiplied. The situation had deteriorated to the point where numerous problems emerged simultaneously, stretching the empire’s resources and the leadership’s capacity to respond. Externally, the empire relied heavily on Li Hongzhang, who served as the primary negotiator with foreign powers and managed the increasingly complex foreign relations almost single-handedly.

Within the court, Prince Chun openly acknowledged that the burden had become too heavy for him to bear alone. He repeatedly confided to his trusted advisors Xu Gengshen and Sun Yuwen that he needed additional capable individuals to share the responsibility. This admission reflected both the overwhelming nature of the challenges and Prince Chun’s self-awareness about his limitations.

The prince faced a fundamental contradiction in his position: he was expected to simultaneously advocate for military resistance against foreign encroachment while also pursuing diplomatic solutions. This placed him in the impossible position of having to be both “Yue Fei and Qin Hui”—referencing the famous patriotic general and the much-reviled official who advocated peace with foreign invaders. This internal conflict created significant psychological and political strain, making consistent policy formation exceptionally difficult.

The Art of Counsel: Navigating Court Politics

The relationship between Prince Chun and his advisors reveals much about Qing court politics. Sun Yuwen typically offered empty reassurances without substantive suggestions, while Xu Gengshen eventually felt compelled to speak more directly about the situation. In a carefully calculated conversation, Xu broached the sensitive subject of Prince Gong’s potential return to government service.

Xu employed subtle rhetorical strategies, beginning with an apparently casual question about whether Prince Chun had recently seen Prince Gong. When the prince responded that he had been too busy, unlike Prince Gong who was reportedly frequently visiting the Western Hills with Bao Peiheng, Xu suggested that this leisure activity might actually represent a form of escape from the frustrating political situation.

The advisor then articulated Prince Chun’s central dilemma more clearly: the prince needed someone of sufficient status and capability to share both the responsibility and the potential blame for difficult decisions. This was particularly true regarding the contradictory positions on war and peace that Prince Chun was forced to maintain.

The Power of Satire: Political Criticism Through Couplets

Qing court politics often found expression in literary forms, including satirical couplets that circulated among officials. Xu Gengshen shared with Prince Chun a particularly biting couplet that criticized Yan Jingming, another prominent official. The couplet compared Yan to both Wang Anshi, the controversial Song Dynasty reformer, and Qin Hui, the infamous official who advocated peace with foreign invaders.

The first line referenced Yan’s earlier writings about declining minor positions while accepting major appointments, comparing this to Wang Anshi’s political career. The second line criticized his approach to the current crisis, suggesting that his abandonment of military options in favor of diplomatic solutions lacked clear strategic purpose, much like Qin Hui’s policies.

This couplet exemplified how officials used literary art to express political criticism indirectly. Such compositions could convey pointed commentary while maintaining deniability, as they often employed historical allegory and classical references that required interpretation. Prince Chun’s reaction—acknowledging the criticism while questioning its historical accuracy—demonstrated how these literary forms were taken seriously as political statements.

The Search for Shared Responsibility

Xu Gengshen’s central proposal was that Prince Chun needed someone to “share the blame” for unpopular decisions, particularly regarding negotiations with France. The French terms were unacceptable to Prince Chun, yet he recognized that some accommodation might be necessary. Having another high-ranking official involved would distribute both the responsibility and the potential criticism.

This suggestion reflected the practical realities of Qing politics. Important decisions, especially those involving compromise with foreign powers, often generated significant opposition from more conservative elements at court. By involving additional figures in the process, Prince Chun could potentially mitigate the political damage to his own position and authority.

The concept of “sharing blame” acknowledges an important aspect of political leadership: the need to manage not only the substantive challenges but also the perceptions and reactions of various constituencies. In a system where imperial favor could be withdrawn suddenly and where political fortunes could change rapidly, protecting one’s position required careful attention to how decisions would be received.

The Shadow of the Past: Prince Gong’s Complicated Legacy

The possibility of recalling Prince Gong faced significant obstacles rooted in recent history. Prince Chun had initially been critical of his brother when he first assumed power, but had gradually developed more sympathy for the challenges Prince Gong had faced. This evolution reflected Prince Chun’s own experience with the difficulties of governance—particularly the truth of the Jiangnan proverb that “watching others carry a load is not strenuous.”

However, palace politics worked against reconciliation. Palace eunuchs, who held significant influence through their access to the Empress Dowager Cixi, had long resented Prince Gong for his treatment of them and particularly for his role in the execution of the powerful eunuch An Dehai. These eunuchs seized opportunities to remind Cixi of past grievances, including Prince Gong’s son Zaicheng’s role in leading the Tongzhi Emperor on improper excursions.

These accumulated resentments had created such strong opposition to Prince Gong that raising the possibility of his return to handle foreign negotiations seemed likely to meet with firm rejection from Cixi. The depth of her displeasure made the political rehabilitation of Prince Gong extremely difficult, despite his recognized abilities in foreign affairs.

A Rare Opportunity: The Imperial Birthday Celebration

The solution to this political impasse emerged from an unexpected direction: the preparations for Empress Dowager Cixi’s fiftieth birthday celebration. This milestone offered a rare opportunity for political maneuvering, as imperial birthdays traditionally involved widespread pardons and restoration of ranks to disgraced officials.

The celebration was particularly significant because Cixi’s fortieth birthday had been marred by controversy over palace renovations and concerns about the Tongzhi Emperor’s health. The court was determined to make the fiftieth celebration a magnificent event, despite the military setbacks at Mawei and the pressure on Taiwan. The extensive preparations included twenty days of theatrical performances—a personal indulgence for Cixi that, while not part of official ceremonies, reflected the importance attached to the occasion.

The birthday celebration generated a series of imperial edicts demonstrating royal benevolence. These included remission of tax arrears from before 1879, exemption of rent debts on banner lands in Zhili province, and honors for various officials and nobles. These measures served both practical and symbolic purposes: they relieved some economic pressure on the population while demonstrating the emperor’s compassion and generosity.

The Rehabilitation Mechanism: Imperial Grace and Political Restoration

The sixth birthday edict specifically addressed the situation of dismissed officials who remained loyal to the throne. Those who came to the capital to offer congratulations for the empress dowager’s birthday, even without official positions, could receive restoration of ranks or honorary titles based on their previous positions.

This mechanism created an opportunity for Prince Gong’s potential return to government service without the need for a direct political reversal. By including him in the general amnesty and restoration associated with the birthday celebration, the court could bring back his experience and skills while saving face for all involved.

The Ministry of Personnel and Grand Council developed specific guidelines: former officials of the fifth rank and above would receive honorary positions two grades lower than their original ranks, while those of the sixth rank and below would receive appropriate recognition. This structured approach allowed for the selective rehabilitation of experienced officials while maintaining the formal hierarchy of the bureaucracy.

The Enduring Questions of Leadership in Crisis

The dilemma faced by Prince Chun and his advisors reflects perennial challenges of leadership during periods of national crisis. The need to balance principle with pragmatism, to maintain domestic political support while pursuing necessary but unpopular policies, and to find capable individuals to share responsibility—these challenges transcend the specific historical context of late Qing China.

The resolution through the mechanism of imperial birthday celebrations demonstrates how traditional political systems often developed indirect methods for addressing difficult personnel questions. By using established ceremonial occasions to implement politically sensitive changes, the system could adapt while maintaining the appearance of continuity and tradition.

This episode also illustrates the complex interplay between personal relationships, institutional structures, and historical circumstances in shaping political outcomes. The tensions between Prince Chun and Prince Gong, the influence of palace eunuchs, the weight of past decisions—all these factors influenced the options available to the leadership as they navigated one of the most challenging periods in China’s modern history.

The legacy of these decisions would echo through subsequent decades as China continued to struggle with modernization, foreign pressure, and internal reform. The questions about how to engage with the outside world, how to distribute political responsibility, and how to balance tradition with necessary change would remain central to China’s political development long after the specific crisis with France had passed.