A Sweltering Day in the Forbidden City

In the oppressive summer heat of June 1900, the air within the Forbidden City hung heavy with more than just humidity. Empress Dowager Cixi sat fanning herself vigorously, the rhythmic motion doing little to cool either her body or her troubled mind. The imperial court faced a crisis that threatened not only the Qing dynasty but China itself. Behind the screen shielding the throne, the chief eunuch Li Lianying observed her distress and swiftly emerged with an enormous goose-feather fan to provide additional relief. This seemingly mundane moment of discomfort masked the tremendous geopolitical pressures building around the imperial court, as China stood on the brink of what would become known as the Boxer Rebellion.

The exchange that followed about cooling drinks—iced rose syrup, sour plum soup, and honeysuckle dew—belied the gravity of the situation. When Cixi ordered that Minister Ronglu also be served, she was not merely displaying imperial generosity but acknowledging the crucial role he would play in the coming decisions. The physical discomfort from the heat mirrored the political fever gripping the court, as officials scrambled to respond to both internal rebellion and external threat. This council meeting, with its refreshments and formalities, would set in motion events that would reshape China’s relationship with the world for decades to come.

The Gathering Storm: International Pressures and Domestic Unrest

By the turn of the 20th century, China found itself in an increasingly precarious position. The Qing dynasty, which had ruled since 1644, was showing signs of severe strain. Foreign powers had carved out spheres of influence throughout the country, establishing concessions in major ports and controlling vital trade routes. The previous decades had seen China suffer humiliating defeats in the Opium Wars and the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, resulting in territorial losses and massive indemnity payments that drained the imperial treasury.

Simultaneously, domestic discontent was reaching a boiling point. Natural disasters, economic hardship, and resentment toward foreign influence had given rise to the Boxer movement—a secret society originally known as the Righteous and Harmonious Fists. What began as anti-Qing sentiment gradually transformed into anti-foreign agitation, with the Boxers blaming Christian missionaries and their Chinese converts for the country’s troubles. By early 1900, Boxer bands were roaming the countryside of northern China, attacking missionaries and Chinese Christians while destroying foreign property.

The imperial court found itself torn between suppressing the Boxers as rebels or supporting them as patriots. Conservative officials, led by Prince Duan and supported by the ultra-conservative official Xu Tong, saw the Boxers as a potential weapon against foreign encroachment. More pragmatic officials, including Ronglu and the regional viceroys, recognized the danger of confronting multiple foreign powers simultaneously.

The Deliberation: Weighing War and Diplomacy

As the chilled drinks provided temporary relief from the summer heat, the conversation turned to the central crisis. Empress Dowager Cixi expressed her reluctant recognition that China could not afford war with the foreign powers. “I also know we cannot start a war with the foreigners!” she acknowledged, her voice low and somewhat hoarse. “If war breaks out, relying solely on the Northern Fleet won’t be enough.” Her assessment reflected the military reality: while regional forces like those commanded by Viceroys Liu Kunyi, Li Hongzhang, and Zhang Zhidong were formidable, their loyalty to central authority was questionable during international conflicts.

The ministers had sent memorials urging caution, advising that “hostilities must not be started by us.” Yet the foreign powers continued their “inch-by-inch advance,” as Cixi described it, with each concession leading to further demands. The unspoken but understood ultimate fear was that the foreigners would eventually demand the Empress Dowager’s resignation and restoration of full power to the Guangxu Emperor, whom she had kept under house arrest since his failed reforms of 1898.

Ronglu’s suggestion was characteristically pragmatic: “The success of negotiations depends on finding the right person. As long as we find the right person, the foreigners will never have the chance to raise unreasonable demands.” This diplomatic approach recognized that skilled negotiation could potentially avert disaster without military confrontation.

When asked whom he would recommend, Ronglu did not hesitate: “Your old Buddha, these negotiations cannot be handled without recalling Li Hongzhang to the capital.” This recommendation carried personal significance for Ronglu, who had previously hoped this contingency would never arise but now recognized it as unavoidable.

The Li Hongzhang Solution: A Calculated Choice

The proposed recall of Li Hongzhang represented both a practical solution and a political compromise. As China’s most experienced diplomat, Li had negotiated previous treaties with foreign powers and understood Western thinking better than any other Qing official. His presence would signal China’s seriousness about finding a diplomatic resolution while ensuring negotiations were handled by someone foreigners respected.

The Guangxu Emperor’s concern that Li might refuse to come revealed the complexity of the situation. The Emperor noted that “with the Boxers causing such trouble, even someone of his abilities would find these negotiations difficult to conduct.” This observation highlighted how domestic unrest complicated international diplomacy—the Boxers’ anti-foreign violence undermined China’s negotiating position while making the capital dangerous for anyone advocating compromise with foreign powers.

Empress Dowager Cixi’s response demonstrated her political acumen: “Since we plan to negotiate with the foreigners, of course we can’t let them continue following their whims.” This statement marked a significant shift in her position—from tolerating Boxer activities to recognizing the need to suppress them for diplomatic reasons. Her question to Ronglu about whether he had “confidence in dealing with the Boxers” signaled this change in policy.

Ronglu’s immediate affirmative response—”Your servant will transfer Yuan Shikai to the capital specifically to suppress the Boxers”—indicated that plans were already in place. The qualification that they should “pacify first, then suppress, only attacking those who refuse pacification” showed awareness that outright military confrontation with the popular movement required careful handling.

Secret Preparations and Bureaucratic Maneuvers

The decision-making process revealed the Qing court’s operational methods at a critical juncture. Empress Dowager Cixi insisted on secrecy: “Let’s settle on this, but we must not reveal our intentions first. Only we three will know of this matter.” This secrecy was essential to prevent conservative elements at court from sabotaging the plan before it could be implemented.

The three-day timeline for preparations created urgency while allowing necessary arrangements. Ronglu’s request to appoint Chen Kuilong as acting Prefect of Shuntian demonstrated the importance of maintaining civil administration during crisis. The approval of this appointment “with an edict issued tomorrow” showed the machinery of government continuing to function even during extraordinary circumstances.

Meanwhile, completely unaware of these developments, Prince Duan and his conservative allies continued preparing for war. They commissioned the drafting of a declaration of war against the foreign powers, assigning the task to a minor official named Lian Wenchong. This contrast between the secret diplomatic preparations and the public war preparations illustrated the divided nature of the Qing court at this critical moment.

Lian’s approach to drafting the document revealed how bureaucratic ambition could overshadow national interest. Rather than approaching the task with “the anguish and fury of a nation fighting for survival,” he felt “promotion and wealth beckoning, full of flourishing delight.” His careful crafting of the document throughout an entire day, with repeated self-admiring readings, showed how personal advancement could distort perspective during national crisis.

The Cultural Context: Tradition Confronts Modernity

The events of that summer day reflected broader cultural tensions within late Qing China. The physical setting—the traditional architecture of the Forbidden City, the use of handheld fans against the heat, the specific refreshments offered—represented centuries of Chinese imperial tradition. Yet the crisis being discussed involved very modern problems: international diplomacy, telegraph communications between regional viceroys and the capital, and the challenge of nationalist movements.

The presence of Xu Tong at the review of the war declaration draft symbolized the conservative Confucian resistance to foreign influence. His refusal to use eyeglasses despite poor eyesight because they were Western technology exemplified the cultural fundamentalism that hampered China’s adaptation to changing global circumstances. This rejection of practical tools from abroad mirrored the broader resistance to foreign ideas and institutions that characterized the conservative faction at court.

The language used in the discussions also revealed cultural patterns. The elaborate politeness, the indirect references to sensitive topics like the Emperor’s confinement, and the use of historical allusions reflected Confucian bureaucratic traditions. Yet the substance of the discussion addressed unprecedented challenges that traditional statecraft struggled to comprehend, let alone manage.

Immediate Consequences and Historical Legacy

The decisions made during that council meeting set in motion several significant developments. Yuan Shikai’s troops indeed suppressed the Boxers in Shandong province, though the movement continued to cause chaos elsewhere. Li Hongzhang was eventually recalled to negotiate what became the Boxer Protocol—a devastating settlement that included execution of officials who supported the Boxers, destruction of fortifications, and an indemnity of 450 million taels of silver to be paid over 39 years.

The Boxer Rebellion and its aftermath severely weakened the Qing dynasty, contributing to its collapse just over a decade later. The enormous indemnity payments strained China’s economy for generations, while the foreign military presence established during the conflict further undermined Chinese sovereignty. The events also demonstrated the inability of traditional Chinese statecraft to manage modern international relations, prompting increased calls for fundamental reform.

The diplomatic approach advocated by Ronglu and eventually adopted by Cixi represented a pragmatic recognition of China’s relative weakness, but it came too late to prevent massive foreign intervention. The simultaneous preparation for both war and negotiation reflected the court’s internal divisions and indecision, which ultimately resulted in the worst possible outcome—military defeat followed by punitive peace terms.

Modern Relevance: Lessons from a Pivotal Moment

The events of summer 1900 continue to resonate in contemporary China’s approach to international relations. The memory of national humiliation during what Chinese historians call the “Century of Humiliation” informs modern foreign policy and nationalist sentiment. China’s determination to avoid similar weakness in the face of foreign pressure can be traced back to traumatic experiences like the Boxer Rebellion and its aftermath.

The tension between anti-foreign sentiment and pragmatic engagement with the international community remains relevant today. Just as the Qing court struggled between Prince Duan’s confrontational approach and Ronglu’s diplomatic strategy, modern Chinese policymakers sometimes face similar dilemmas in balancing nationalist sentiment with practical foreign policy requirements.

The Boxer Rebellion also serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of populist movements being exploited for political purposes. The Qing court’s initial tolerance of Boxer activities, followed by inability to control them, illustrates how governments can lose control of forces they initially encourage for short-term advantage.

Finally, the episode demonstrates the importance of skilled diplomacy and timely decision-making in international crises. The delay in pursuing negotiations and the mixed signals sent by simultaneous war preparations likely worsened the ultimate outcome. This historical lesson about the costs of indecision and internal division remains pertinent for governments everywhere facing complex international challenges.

The sweltering day in the Forbidden City when Empress Dowager Cixi fanning herself led to fateful decisions thus represents more than just a historical anecdote. It captures a pivotal moment when China’s leadership struggled to reconcile tradition with modernity, nationalism with pragmatism, and sovereignty with the reality of international power dynamics—challenges that would continue to shape Chinese history long after the Qing dynasty itself had vanished.