A Nation in Transition: The Meiji Restoration Context

The early 1870s represented a critical juncture in Japan’s transformation from feudal isolation to modern nation-state. Following the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the new government faced the monumental task of building a centralized administration while managing powerful competing interests. The abolition of the han system and establishment of prefectures in 1871 had dismantled the old feudal structure, but creating a stable new order proved challenging. Political power remained concentrated among former samurai from the victorious Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa, and Hizen domains, who now jockeyed for influence within the emerging imperial government. This period saw intense debates about Japan’s future direction, particularly regarding foreign policy, military organization, and economic development. The political landscape was characterized by fragile alliances, personal rivalries, and ideological conflicts that would repeatedly threaten the stability of the new regime.

The Seikanron Crisis and Political Realignment

In October 1873, a major political crisis known as the Seikanron shook the Meiji government to its foundations. The dispute centered on whether Japan should pursue a military expedition against Korea, with prominent leaders including Saigo Takamori advocating for aggressive expansion while others counseled caution. When the peace faction prevailed, five councilors including Saigo and Itagaki Taisuke resigned in protest. This mass resignation created both a crisis and opportunity for the remaining leadership. On October 25, 1873, Ito Hirobumi, previously Vice Minister of Public Works, was appointed Councilor and Minister of Public Works. Simultaneously, Katsu Kaishu, the Naval Vice Minister and former Tokugawa retainer, received appointment as Councilor and Naval Minister. Three days later, Munenori Terashima, the ambassador to Britain, joined them as Councilor and Foreign Minister. These appointments represented a significant consolidation of power by the anti-war faction and marked a turning point in Meiji political development.

The Curious Case of Yamagata Aritomo’s Exclusion

One of the most telling aspects of the post-Seikanron appointments was the conspicuous exclusion of Yamagata Aritomo, who had served as Army Minister since June but was not granted councilor status. In the reorganization, all ministry leaders except the Army Minister and Imperial Household Minister received concurrent councilor appointments. This unusual arrangement reflected the political consequences of Yamagata’s perceived hesitation during the crisis. Despite owing his advancement to Saigo Takamori’s patronage, Yamagata had maintained ambiguous neutrality rather than actively supporting the anti-war faction led by Kido Takayoshi. This political misstep cost him the councilor position, though he retained support from Okubo Toshimichi, Iwakura Tomomi, and Ito himself, allowing him to remain as Army Minister until February of the following year. The episode demonstrated how personal loyalties and political maneuvering could override formal hierarchies in the early Meiji government.

Ito Hirobumi’s Emerging Leadership Role

The political reshuffle following the Seikanron crisis revealed Ito Hirobumi’s growing influence within the government. At just thirty-two years old, his appointment as Councilor and Public Works Minister marked his arrival as a major political force. Ito had played a crucial behind-the-scenes role during the crisis, maintaining communications between Kido Takayoshi and Okubo Toshimichi while encouraging Iwakura Tomomi to take decisive action. With Kido’s health deteriorating, Ito increasingly assumed his responsibilities, effectively becoming the acting leader of their political faction. This included managing the sensitive task of stabilizing Army personnel arrangements after the resignation of numerous officials who had supported Saigo’s expansionist position. Ito’s rise exemplified the new meritocratic tendencies within the Meiji government, where talent and political skill increasingly competed with domain background as determinants of advancement.

The Viscount Mutsu Affair and Meritocratic Vision

The case of Mutsu Munemitsu, a official from Wakayama domain affiliated with Kido’s faction, illustrated both the personal networks and reforming spirit characterizing Meiji administration. After serving as head of the Tax Bureau, Mutsu was appointed Vice Finance Minister in June 1873 but resigned in January 1874 due to interpersonal conflicts within the ministry. Ito, recognizing Mutsu’s exceptional abilities, attempted to find him a suitable position elsewhere in the government. When efforts to transfer him to the Justice Ministry failed due to opposition from Justice Minister Oki Takato, Mutsu resigned completely. This episode demonstrated Ito’s commitment to talent over domain affiliation—he sought to advance capable reformers regardless of their regional background. Though Mutsu would later face imprisonment for involvement in the Satsuma Rebellion, he eventually returned to serve as Foreign Minister under Ito during the Sino-Japanese War, justifying Ito’s early faith in his abilities.

The Saga Rebellion and Civil Unrest

Just two weeks after Mutsu’s resignation, growing samurai dissatisfaction erupted into open rebellion. On February 1, 1874, former samurai attacked the Saga branch of the Onogumi banking house, beginning what would become known as the Saga Rebellion. The uprising reflected widespread discontent among the former warrior class, who had lost their privileged status and economic security under the new regime. When reports reached Tokyo on February 3, Home Minister Okubo Toshimichi took immediate charge of the response. After consulting with Sanjo Sanetomi, Iwakura Tomomi, and Kido Takayoshi, Okubo volunteered to lead the government response personally. On February 9, he received authorization to proceed to Kyushu with full authority for suppression and punishment.

Ito’s Strategic Counsel During Crisis

As the crisis unfolded, Ito Hirobumi provided crucial strategic advice to Okubo. In a February 10 letter, Ito expressed concerns about potential disloyalty within the Kumamoto garrison commanded by General Tani Tateki. Suspecting that Tani might join the rebellion, Ito recommended replacing him with General Nozu Michitsura and sending two battalions from the Osaka garrison rather than just one. He also cautioned the famously courageous Okubo against personal risk-taking, urging him to “take care of yourself for the sake of the nation.” Though mistaken about Tani’s loyalty—the general remained faithful to the government—Ito’s advice reflected his characteristically cautious and strategic approach to crisis management. His recommendations were largely followed, demonstrating the trust he had earned from senior leaders despite his relative youth.

The Suppression and Its Aftermath

Okubo departed Tokyo on February 14 with General Nozu and other military officers, following consultations with Army Vice Minister Saigo Tsugumichi and Ito. Landing in Fukuoka on February 19 with two battalions from the Osaka garrison, Okubo established his headquarters and began operations against approximately ten thousand rebels. Government forces recaptured Saga Castle on March 1, and by April 13, the rebellion’s leaders including former Councilor Eto Shimpei had been captured and executed. The successful suppression, directed by civilian leadership under Okubo with strategic input from Ito, demonstrated the government’s determination and ability to maintain order. The Saga Rebellion represented the first major test of the Meiji government’s authority since the Seikanron crisis and established an important precedent for civilian control over military operations.

Ito’s Work at the Public Works Ministry

Beyond his political and strategic roles, Ito made significant contributions as Minister of Public Works. Though initially appointed Vice Minister in September 1871 following the abolition of domains, he had spent most of the subsequent two years abroad as part of the Iwakura Mission, leaving little time for domestic administration. Upon his return and appointment as full minister in late 1873, Ito actively pursued the ministry’s mission of promoting industrial development. He approved additional telegraph lines between Tokyo and Nagasaki, initiated construction of new roads to access mining resources, and generally accelerated the ministry’s activities. Under his leadership, the Public Works Ministry became a driving force behind Japan’s rapid industrialization, importing Western technology and expertise while developing critical infrastructure.

The Broader Implications for Meiji Governance

The events of 1873-1874 revealed several important patterns in Meiji political development. First, they demonstrated the emerging system of collective leadership within the government, where major decisions required consultation among senior figures despite formal hierarchies. Second, they highlighted the continuing importance of personal networks and domain connections even as the government attempted to create a modern bureaucracy. Third, they showed how younger, talented officials like Ito could rapidly advance based on ability rather than seniority. Finally, the successful suppression of the Saga Rebellion established the government’s determination to maintain monopoly on violence and suppress challenges to its authority—a crucial prerequisite for modern statehood.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The political maneuvers and crises of 1873-1874 had far-reaching consequences for Japan’s development. The exclusion of expansionists like Saigo Takamori ensured that Japan would focus on internal development rather than foreign adventurism—at least in the immediate term. The emergence of leaders like Ito Hirobumi signaled a shift toward pragmatic, administrative governance focused on economic modernization. The government’s decisive response to the Saga Rebellion demonstrated its willingness to use force to maintain order, setting a pattern that would continue through the much larger Satsuma Rebellion three years later. Perhaps most importantly, these events established precedents for civilian control over the military and the primacy of political leadership in strategic decision-making—traditions that would significantly influence Japan’s development as a modern state. Ito’s continued rise to eventually become Japan’s first prime minister in 1885 had its roots in this critical period when his political acumen, administrative ability, and strategic vision first became apparent to his contemporaries.