The Dawn of a Constitutional Era in Japan

In the wake of the political upheaval of 1881, known as the Meiji 14th Year Political Crisis, Japan stood at a critical juncture. The imperial government, having narrowly averted a potential descent into political chaos, made a momentous commitment: the establishment of a national diet by 1890. This promise necessitated nothing less than the complete transformation of Japan’s governing structure through the creation of a constitutional framework. The task was herculean—requiring not merely the drafting of documents but the fundamental reimagining of how power would be distributed and exercised in a nation rapidly modernizing while clinging to ancient traditions.

The political landscape of early Meiji Japan was characterized by intense factionalism and competing visions for the nation’s future. The overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868 had unleashed powerful forces of change, but the direction of that change remained hotly contested. Traditionalists advocated for preserving Japan’s unique political heritage while modernizers pushed for rapid Westernization. Against this backdrop, the decision to create a constitutional monarchy represented a precarious balancing act between these competing impulses.

The Reluctant Ambassador: Ito Hirobumi’s European Mission

The weight of constitutional research fell upon the shoulders of Ito Hirobumi, a prominent statesman who would become Japan’s first prime minister. Contrary to what one might assume, Ito did not volunteer for this mission. In March 1882, under imperial command, he embarked for Europe with a team of assistants, charged with investigating the constitutional systems of Western nations. His mandate included thirty-one specific research items covering everything from constitutional frameworks to the practical operation of government institutions.

Ito’s reluctance stemmed not from lack of dedication but from profound understanding of the challenges involved. While other government officials, including his colleague Okuma Shigenobu, believed constitution-drafting to be a relatively straightforward technical exercise, Ito recognized the deeper difficulties. He understood that transplanting constitutional systems developed in completely different cultural soil would present challenges not just in formulation but in implementation. This insight, born of his sophisticated understanding of Western political culture, made him acutely aware of the enormity of the task.

The Political Context of a Constitutional Mission

The decision to send Ito abroad was itself the product of complex political maneuvering. Within government circles, significant opposition existed to both the European mission and Ito’s leadership of it. Three influential councillors—Sasaki Takayuki, Yamada Akiyoshi, and Oki Takato—expressed skepticism about the endeavor. Even Iwakura Tomomi, the powerful right minister, initially adopted a negative stance toward the proposal.

The mission only moved forward through the diplomatic efforts of Inoue Kaoru, another prominent councillor and Ito’s close ally. Inoue’s advocacy, however, revealed the complicated perceptions surrounding Ito’s departure. Rather than emphasizing the constitutional mission’s importance, Inoue framed the journey as necessary for Ito’s health, mentioning his “nervous exhaustion” and reliance on alcohol for sleep. Even Japan’s leading newspapers, including the influential Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun, expressed doubts about the wisdom and necessity of dispatching Ito to Europe.

The Psychological Toll of Constitutional Creation

The pressures weighing on Ito during this period were immense. The Meiji 14th Year Political Crisis had just concluded with the expulsion of Okuma from government, a resolution that Ito had engineered. No sooner had this political battle been won than Ito found himself confronting the even greater challenge of constitutional creation. The burden was multifaceted: he faced skepticism from colleagues, lacked language skills for researching German constitutional models , and carried the responsibility of transforming Japan’s governance without adequate precedents to guide him.

Contemporary accounts describe Ito suffering from what would today be recognized as severe stress-related illness. His “nervous prostration” and dependence on alcohol illustrate the psychological cost of his constitutional ambitions. This personal struggle underscores the human dimension of Japan’s modernization—the often-overlooked emotional and mental toll on those tasked with steering a traditional society through revolutionary change.

Assembling the Constitutional Team

Ito did not embark on his European journey alone. His delegation included several significant figures who would play important roles in Japan’s political development. Among them were Yamazaki Naotane, a high-ranking government secretary; Ito Miyoji, a councillor from the Senate; and Kawashima Atsushi, an official from the finance ministry.

Most notably, the mission included Saionji Kinmochi, a 32-year-old aristocrat who had recently returned from nearly a decade of study in France. Saionji’s expertise in French law and European political systems made him an invaluable addition to the mission. His presence reflected the careful composition of the team—balancing practical administrators with theoretical experts. The inclusion of Saionji, who would later succeed Ito as president of the Rikken Seiyukai political party, represented an investment in the next generation of constitutional leadership.

The Research Agenda: Thirty-One Points of Inquiry

The imperial instruction given to Ito outlined a comprehensive research agenda reflecting the sophisticated understanding Japan’s leaders had developed regarding constitutional government. The thirty-one investigation items demonstrated that Japanese officials recognized constitutions as living systems rather than mere documents. Their inquiries extended beyond textual analysis to examine how constitutional principles operated in practice.

The research categories revealed Japan’s particular concerns: the relationship between monarchical authority and constitutional limits, the organization of legislative bodies, the structure of judicial systems, and the administration of local government. Particularly insightful was the emphasis on understanding how different branches of government interacted in practice—how checks and balances actually functioned in European systems. This practical focus distinguished Japan’s constitutional research from mere theoretical inquiry.

Germanic Focus: A Deliberate Constitutional Choice

Ito’s decision to focus his investigations on German-speaking states reflected a calculated judgment about which European model best suited Japan’s needs. While earlier Japanese missions had concentrated on Britain and France, Ito deliberately turned toward Prussia and Austria. This shift represented more than academic preference; it signaled Japan’s emerging understanding of its own political needs.

The German states offered examples of constitutional monarchy that preserved substantial imperial authority while creating representative institutions. This balance appealed to Japanese leaders seeking to modernize without completely abandoning traditional structures of authority. The choice also reflected practical considerations—Germany’s recent unification and rapid industrialization presented parallels to Japan’s own development challenges.

Cultural : The Challenge of Constitutional Adaptation

Ito’s deepest insight, and greatest concern, involved the challenge of cultural . He understood that constitutions emerge from specific historical experiences and cultural contexts. The British parliamentary tradition reflected centuries of gradual evolution; American federalism responded to particular geographic and political circumstances; German constitutionalism developed within distinct philosophical and legal traditions.

The fundamental challenge was how to adapt these foreign models to Japanese circumstances—how to create constitutional government that would function effectively within Japan’s unique cultural context. This required more than literal of legal texts; it demanded understanding the unwritten assumptions and cultural foundations that made constitutional government work in Europe. Ito recognized that without this deeper understanding, Japan risked creating a constitutional facade without functional substance.

The European Experience: Constitutional Education Abroad

During his year abroad, Ito and his team conducted intensive research across Europe. They met with leading legal scholars, including Rudolf von Gneist and Lorenz von Stein, who profoundly influenced their constitutional thinking. These interactions provided not just technical knowledge but philosophical grounding in constitutional theory.

The European experience transformed Ito’s understanding of governance. He came to appreciate the constitution as more than a legal document—it represented the fundamental organization of political community, the embodiment of a nation’s political values, and the framework for channeling political conflict into productive dialogue. This comprehensive vision would inform his approach to drafting what would become the Meiji Constitution.

Return and Implementation: From Theory to Practice

Ito returned to Japan in August 1883, armed with knowledge and experience but facing the even greater challenge of implementation. The following years would see intense debate and careful drafting as Japan moved toward constitutional government. The process involved not just writing constitutional text but creating supporting legislation, establishing new institutions, and educating officials in their operation.

The practical challenges were enormous: creating a parliamentary system where none had existed, establishing judicial independence in a traditionally bureaucratic state, and defining the emperor’s role within a constitutional framework. Each of these tasks required balancing innovation with tradition, Western models with Japanese realities.

The Birth of the Meiji Constitution

After years of careful preparation, the Meiji Constitution was promulgated in 1889, coming into effect the following year with the opening of the Imperial Diet. The document represented a remarkable achievement—blending Western constitutional principles with Japanese political traditions. It established a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature while preserving significant imperial authority.

The constitution created the framework for Japan’s modern political development, establishing rules for political competition while maintaining stability. Its careful balancing of innovation and tradition reflected Ito’s sophisticated understanding of both Western systems and Japanese realities. The document would govern Japan for nearly six decades until replaced after World War II.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

Ito Hirobumi’s constitutional mission represents a landmark episode in global history—the deliberate, systematic transplantation of constitutional government from one civilization to another. Japan’s success in creating a functional constitutional system demonstrated that Western political forms could be adapted to non-Western contexts, inspiring similar efforts across Asia.

The Meiji Constitution’s legacy is complex. It established representative government and rule of law while maintaining authoritarian elements. It facilitated Japan’s rapid modernization while creating tensions that would eventually contribute to military expansionism. Yet its creation remains a remarkable achievement of political engineering and cultural .

The story of Japan’s constitutional development offers enduring lessons about political change: the importance of cultural adaptation, the value of comparative study, and the necessity of balancing innovation with continuity. Ito’s recognition that constitutional government requires more than legal documents—that it depends on practical operation within cultural context—remains relevant for nations undergoing political transformation today.

Japan’s constitutional journey illustrates both the possibilities and limitations of deliberate political change. It demonstrates how nations can selectively adapt foreign models while preserving cultural distinctiveness. And it stands as testament to the vision of leaders like Ito Hirobumi, who understood that creating lasting political institutions requires both knowledge of other systems and profound understanding of one’s own society.