The Political Landscape of Late Meiji Japan

The final decade of the 19th century witnessed Japan undergoing profound transformations as it sought to establish itself as a modern nation-state. Following the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the country had embarked on an ambitious program of Westernization and modernization, creating new political institutions while grappling with the tension between traditional authority and emerging democratic ideals. The Meiji Constitution of 1889 had established a constitutional monarchy with an elected Diet, but real power remained largely concentrated in the hands of the genrō, the elder statesmen who had engineered the Restoration.

Into this complex political environment emerged Japan’s first political parties, representing various interests and ideologies. The Jiyūtō , which would play a crucial role in the events leading to the formation of Japan’s first major modern political party.

The Unstable Alliance Between Kenseitō and the Yamagata Government

The relationship between the Kenseitō, led by the shrewd politician Hoshi Tōru, and the second Yamagata Aritomo cabinet represented a delicate political balancing act. For over a year, this unlikely alliance functioned through a system of mutual concessions. The government, in return for Kenseitō’s support in passing the controversial land tax increase legislation, implemented significant electoral reforms in 1899. These included abolishing the multiple-vote system that favored wealthy landowners, eliminating the requirement that representatives of large landowners serve in prefectural assemblies, and expanding suffrage in both prefectural and county elections.

This cooperation served strategic purposes for both sides. For Yamagata and his conservative government, it provided necessary parliamentary support for their agenda. For Hoshi and the Kenseitō, it represented a stepping stone toward their ultimate goal of party-based cabinet government. However, this arrangement contained inherent tensions that would eventually lead to its dissolution. The fundamental incompatibility between Yamagata’s staunch bureaucratic conservatism and Hoshi’s vision of party politics created a fragile foundation for cooperation.

The Military Challenge and Breaking Point

The fragile political equilibrium was shattered in May 1900 when the Yamagata cabinet made a decisive move that would have lasting implications for Japanese civil-military relations. On May 19, the government revised the official regulations for the Army and Navy ministries, formally requiring that service ministers be active-duty generals or lieutenant generals. While in practice military officers had always filled these positions, the institutionalization of this requirement represented a significant consolidation of military authority and a direct challenge to party influence over defense matters.

This move precipitated the final break between Yamagata and the Kenseitō leadership. On May 31, Hoshi and his colleagues presented the prime minister with an ultimatum: either incorporate Kenseitō members into the cabinet or have cabinet ministers join their party. This demand reflected the fundamental limitation of their cooperation—without actual participation in governance, the alliance had reached its logical endpoint.

Yamagata, who had already been contemplating resignation and had expressed his desire to step down to the Emperor on May 24, had no intention of acceding to these demands. His deep-seated antipathy toward political parties made genuine power-sharing unthinkable. The stage was thus set for a dramatic realignment of Japanese politics.

Itō Hirobumi and the Vision for a New Political Force

With the Yamagata-Kenseitō alliance collapsing, attention turned to Itō Hirobumi, perhaps the most influential statesman of the Meiji era. Itō had been the principal architect of the Meiji Constitution and had served as prime minister on multiple occasions. Despite his establishment credentials, he had come to recognize the inevitable role of political parties in Japan’s constitutional development.

On June 1, 1900, Hoshi and his delegation approached Itō with a proposal: assume leadership of the Kenseitō. Instead, Itō revealed his own plan to establish an entirely new political organization. This was not a sudden impulse but the culmination of more than a year of consideration. Itō had been observing the political situation carefully and had concluded that Japan needed a different model of political organization—one that could bridge the gap between the traditional ruling elite and emerging party politics.

Hoshi, who had long hoped for collaboration with Itō to achieve party-based cabinets, immediately embraced this proposal and committed to joining the new organization. Thus, the concept of the Rikken Seiyūkai rapidly took concrete form.

The Complex Process of Party Formation

The creation of the Seiyūkai involved intricate negotiations and organizational planning throughout the summer of 1900. Itō consulted with various political figures, including Yamagata, who offered neither strong opposition nor enthusiastic support—a characteristically ambiguous position that reflected their complex relationship.

In July, Itō began detailed discussions with his close confidant Itō Miyoji and Hoshi Tōru regarding the party’s structure. Itō initially envisioned a relatively loose organization similar to a political club, which would make it easier for government officials and business leaders to join. However, both Hoshi and Itō Miyoji argued convincingly for a more tightly organized structure with clear lines of authority between headquarters and local branches, fearing that a looser arrangement would be unmanageable.

This organizational debate reflected a significant shift in Japanese political culture. The 1893 revision of the Laws of Assembly and Political Associations, following the Emperor’s Imperial Edict on Harmony, had legalized the establishment of political party branches. Both the former Liberal Party and Progressive Party factions had used this provision to reorganize and expand their membership substantially. Itō’s initial resistance to branch organizations suggested a certain disconnect from the evolving reality of party politics, a rare misjudgment from the normally astute statesman.

Personal Rifts and Political Consequences

The formation process was complicated by personal tensions, particularly between Itō Hirobumi and his longtime associate Itō Miyoji. Their relationship had been strained since an incident more than two and a half years earlier during the formation of Itō’s third cabinet. Itō had offered Miyoji what he believed was the position of Communications Minister, but when the actual appointment turned out to be Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, Miyoji refused to join the cabinet, creating a serious rift between them.

This personal history resurfaced during the Seiyūkai’s formation. Itō Miyoji felt undervalued in the planning process and gradually distanced himself from the effort. The aging Itō Hirobumi’s increasingly unstable emotions exacerbated the situation, leading to Miyoji’s complete withdrawal from the Seiyūkai project before its formal establishment. This personal drama highlighted the very human dimensions behind what might otherwise appear as dry political history.

The Formal Establishment of the Seiyūkai

On August 25, 1900, Itō gathered thirteen prominent figures, including Saionji Kinmochi, at the Kōyōkan restaurant in Tokyo’s Shiba Park to announce the founding principles and platform of the new party. They established a committee to oversee the party’s creation, though notably absent was Itō Miyoji, whose absence signaled the personal rifts that would continue to affect Japanese politics.

The formal transition occurred on September 13, when the Kenseitō dissolved itself and its members automatically joined the new Seiyūkai. Two days later, on September 15, the founding ceremony took place at the Imperial Hotel—Itō’s regular accommodation when traveling from his home in Ōiso to Tokyo—with more than 1,400 people in attendance. Itō assumed the position of president, cementing his leadership of this new political force.

The Ideological Foundation of the Seiyūkai

Itō’s vision for the Seiyūkai, articulated in his August 25 foundation speech and his September 15 inaugural address, revealed a sophisticated understanding of Japan’s political needs and a clear direction for constitutional development.

First, Itō envisioned the Seiyūkai as a mechanism for incorporating the opinions of local influential figures into national politics, thereby realizing genuine constitutional government. This represented a significant departure from top-down governance and acknowledged the importance of broader participation in political life.

Second, recognizing the immaturity of Japan’s party system, Itō sought to avoid excessive party interference in cabinet appointments and policy decisions—at least initially. To this end, he established party rules that granted extraordinary powers to the president. The rules did not specify term limits for the president but granted him authority to appoint and dismiss all key party officials, including executive committee members, secretaries-general, and other leadership positions. The president also determined the number of executive committee members and had sole authority to convene party assemblies.

Itō further emphasized the importance of maintaining a disciplined, orderly party by excluding those prone to violent tactics or radicalism. This reflected his desire to create a responsible political organization capable of policy formulation and governance—a true modern party that could eventually assume the responsibilities of government.

Third, Itō saw the Seiyūkai as essential to Japan’s international positioning. He expected the party to master the norms of international relations among great powers and to support the coordinated foreign policy and defense-oriented industrial development that he had painstakingly built throughout his career.

The party’s nine-article platform encapsulated these principles, emphasizing constitutional government, fiscal responsibility, expansion of rights and privileges, development of education, promotion of industry, efficient administration, equitable distribution of wealth, and peaceful diplomacy.

The Seiyūkai’s Immediate Impact and Historical Significance

The creation of the Seiyūkai marked a watershed moment in Japanese political history. It represented the first successful merger of establishment leadership with organized party politics, bridging the gap between the genrō-dominated oligarchy and the emerging party system. The party quickly became a dominant force in the Diet, forming the basis for what would become Japan’s first party cabinet under Hara Takashi in 1918.

The Seiyūkai’s formation also had immediate consequences for Itō’s political career. Shortly after establishing the party, Itō formed his fourth and final cabinet in October 1900—Japan’s first cabinet based on a political party, albeit one still led by a genrō rather than a career politician. This cabinet would prove short-lived, resigning in May 1901, but it established an important precedent for party-based government.

Enduring Legacy and Modern Relevance

The Rikken Seiyūkai’s influence extended far beyond the Meiji era. It became one of Japan’s two dominant prewar political parties, alternating power with the Rikken Minseitō throughout the 1920s and early 1930s. The party’s organizational model and approach to governance established patterns that would influence Japanese politics for decades.

Even after World War II, the legacy of the Seiyūkai could be detected in the organization and operation of Japan’s conservative parties, particularly the Liberal Democratic Party that would dominate postwar politics. The tension between strong leadership and party democracy, the relationship between central headquarters and local organizations, and the balancing of various factional interests within a broad coalition—all characteristics of the Seiyūkai—would become enduring features of Japanese political life.

The creation of the Seiyūkai represented a crucial step in Japan’s political modernization, demonstrating that constitutional government and party politics could be reconciled with Japan’s unique political traditions. Itō Hirobumi’s vision of a “government by party” modeled on the British system, while never fully realized in his lifetime, established a direction that would gradually transform Japan’s political landscape throughout the 20th century.

The story of the Seiyūkai’s formation remains relevant today as democracies worldwide continue to grapple with questions about the proper role of political parties, the balance between leadership authority and internal democracy, and the relationship between established elites and popular political movements. The Seiyūkai experiment represents an early and instructive example of these enduring political challenges.