Introduction: A Philosopher’s Lament on the City Walls

The scene unfolds in the state of Lu during the late Spring and Autumn period, where the aging philosopher Confucius stands atop the observation tower after participating in the year-end Zhà sacrifice ceremony. As the ritual smoke dissipates below, he gazes across the landscape and sighs deeply—not merely at the immediate political troubles of his home state, but at the broader human condition. His disciple Yan Yan, standing beside him, inquires about this melancholy, prompting one of the most profound political visions in human history: the contrasting ideals of Datong chapter of the Book of Rites, would echo through Chinese political philosophy for millennia, offering both a nostalgic look at an idealized past and a pragmatic blueprint for governance.

Historical Context: The Fragmentation of the Zhou Order

To understand Confucius’s lament, we must appreciate the turbulent era in which he lived. The Zhou dynasty , which had formed the bedrock of Zhou political culture, was increasingly disregarded by rulers more interested in power than virtue.

Confucius lived during this period of moral and political decay. As an itinerant teacher and former official, he witnessed firsthand the suffering caused by corrupt governance and social disintegration. His philosophical project sought to restore order through ethical cultivation and proper ritual observance. The conversation recorded in the Lǐ Yùn chapter represents not merely abstract speculation but a direct response to the political failures of his time—a attempt to articulate what had been lost and what might still be salvaged.

The Golden Age: Datong Society

Confucius begins his discourse by describing an era of “Great Unity” that existed before recorded history, during the age of the Five Emperors prevailed, characterized by collective ownership and universal compassion.

In this idealized world, “all under heaven belonged to everyone”—a radical concept of common ownership that extended beyond material resources to social responsibilities. Leadership was based on merit rather than heredity, with the worthy and capable selected to serve the community. Trustworthiness and harmony were cultivated as social virtues, creating bonds that transcended narrow familial allegiances.

The social contract of Datong society ensured comprehensive welfare: the elderly could live out their years in comfort, adults found meaningful employment, children received proper nurturing, and the most vulnerable—widows, orphans, the childless, and the disabled—were all cared for. Gender roles were clearly defined but complementary: men had their occupations, women had their marital homes.

Economic life operated on principles diametrically opposed to selfish accumulation. Goods were not hoarded but circulated to prevent waste; labor was not avoided but willingly offered for the common good. With everyone’s needs met and virtue cultivated, social ills disappeared: plotting and scheming ceased, theft and robbery vanished, and people could leave their outer doors unbolted at night.

This vision represents perhaps the earliest comprehensive utopian blueprint in human history, predating similar Western conceptions by centuries. It combines material security with moral cultivation, suggesting that true social harmony requires both economic justice and ethical transformation.

The Pragmatic Alternative: Xiaokang Society

Following his description of this lost golden age, Confucius turns to the more pragmatic reality of the “Small Tranquility” society that emerged after the “Great Way had fallen into obscurity.” This represents the historical period of the Three Dynasties and their exemplary rulers: Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, King Cheng, and the Duke of Zhou.

In this diminished but still functional society, “all under heaven belonged to individual families”—private property had replaced communal ownership, and people cared primarily for their own kin rather than the broader community. Resources and labor were directed toward personal benefit rather than the common good. Hereditary succession had replaced meritocratic selection, with rulers passing power to their descendants.

Faced with this more self-interested human nature, the sage kings established institutions to maintain order. They built fortified cities and moats for protection, but more importantly, they developed ritual propriety and righteousness as the framework for society. These principles were used to regulate the five fundamental relationships: between ruler and minister, father and son, elder and younger brother, husband and wife, and between friends.

The Xiaokang society established systems for land distribution, honored the brave and wise, and created mechanisms for demonstrating righteousness, verifying trustworthiness, exposing errors, promoting benevolence, and encouraging deference. These institutions provided a constant standard for the people to follow. Those in power who failed to adhere to these principles would be removed, as the populace would recognize them as calamities.

This vision represents Confucius’s pragmatic acknowledgment that the perfect Datong society might be unattainable in the current age, but that a functional and ethical society could still be maintained through proper institutions and moral leadership.

Philosophical Foundations: The Concept of Li

Central to both visions is the concept of lǐ, often translated as “ritual,” “propriety,” or “rites.” But lǐ encompasses far more than ceremonial observance—it represents the entire framework of civilized behavior that distinguishes human society from animal existence. In Confucian thought, lǐ constitutes the concrete expression of moral principles in daily life, the means by which abstract virtues become social reality.

The Lǐ Yùn chapter presents lǐ as evolutionary rather than static. It emerged organically during the Datong period as the natural expression of human virtue, then became codified during the Xiaokang era as a necessary restraint on human selfishness. This developmental view suggests that institutions must adapt to changing historical circumstances while preserving essential moral principles.

Confucius identifies lǐ as the mechanism through which society balances the complementary forces of yīn and yáng—the passive and active principles that govern the universe. Proper ritual observance maintains harmony between humanity and the cosmic order, including the realms of heaven, earth, spirits, and the five phases .

Comparative Perspectives: Utopian Thought Across Civilizations

The Datong-Xiaokang dichotomy offers fascinating parallels with Western political philosophy. Plato’s Republic, written approximately a century later, similarly presents an idealized state governed by philosopher-kings who transcend personal interests for the common good. Both visions share a meritocratic approach to governance and an emphasis on education for moral development.

The Datong society’s economic communalism anticipates elements of Thomas More’s Utopia and later socialist thought. Its description of resources being used according to need rather than accumulated for personal gain echoes strongly in nineteenth and twentieth-century utopian literature. The vision of doors remaining unbolted recalls biblical prophecies of messianic peace.

Meanwhile, the Xiaokang society’s pragmatic institutionalism resonates with social contract theorists like Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, who similarly argued that structured governance becomes necessary once humans move beyond a primitive state of natural harmony. The emphasis on ritual as a civilizing force finds parallels in Burkean conservatism’s respect for tradition and custom.

What distinguishes the Confucian vision is its historical consciousness—the notion that these are not merely theoretical alternatives but represent successive stages in human development. This evolutionary perspective anticipates later philosophical historians like Vico and Hegel who would similarly conceptualize history as progress through distinct phases.

Cultural Impact Through Chinese History

The Datong ideal has exercised a powerful influence throughout Chinese history, serving as both inspiration and critique. During the Han dynasty, reformers pointed to this vision when advocating for limitations on land ownership and more equitable economic policies. The concept resonated with certain Buddhist teachings about compassion, facilitating the integration of Indian Buddhism into Chinese thought.

Numerous peasant rebellions invoked the Datong ideal to legitimate their challenges to established authority. The Taiping Rebellion in the nineteenth century incorporated elements of this vision into its radical social program, while twentieth-century revolutionaries, including Sun Yat-sen and Mao Zedong, referenced Datong when articulating their visions for China’s future.

The Xiaokang concept proved equally influential among governing elites. Throughout imperial history, officials and emperors measured their administrations against this standard of competent, ethical governance. The term became shorthand for competent administration that provided basic security and prosperity without achieving utopian perfection.

During the Song dynasty, Neo-Confucian philosophers developed these concepts further, exploring how individual moral cultivation could contribute to social harmony. The Datong ideal informed educational reforms aimed at creating a more meritocratic bureaucracy, while the Xiaokang model guided practical governance.

Modern Relevance: From Ancient Concept to Contemporary Policy

Remarkably, these ancient concepts continue to shape Chinese political discourse in the twenty-first century. The term “Xiaokang society” was officially adopted as a policy goal in 2002, defined as a “moderately prosperous society” that provides dignified living standards for all Chinese citizens. This modern interpretation maintains the Confucian emphasis on material security while adapting it to contemporary economic realities.

The Datong ideal continues to inspire visions of global harmony, with some contemporary philosophers proposing it as a distinctly Chinese contribution to cosmopolitan thought. Its emphasis on caring beyond one’s immediate family resonates with modern concerns about global inequality and environmental responsibility.

These concepts also inform China’s approach to international relations. The principle of “datong” underlies official rhetoric about win-win cooperation and shared future for humanity, while the pragmatic institutionalism of “xiaokang” finds expression in China’s focus on development and stability.

Beyond policy applications, these concepts offer resources for addressing contemporary philosophical dilemmas. The Datong vision challenges radical individualism with its communitarian ethos, while the Xiaokang model offers a middle path between utopian idealism and cynical realpolitik.

Critical Perspectives and Interpretations

Like all foundational texts, the Lǐ Yùn chapter has generated diverse interpretations throughout history. Some scholars question whether the Datong passage genuinely reflects Confucius’s thought or represents a later interpolation by Warring States period reformers. The strong communitarian elements seem at odds with other Confucian texts that emphasize familial piety above broader social commitments.

Feminist scholars have noted the gendered division of labor in both visions, with men having occupations and women having marital homes. While this reflected the historical context in which the text was composed, it raises questions about how these concepts might be reinterpreted for more egalitarian contemporary societies.

Political theorists debate whether the Datong-Xiaokang dichotomy represents a historical narrative or a typology of possible societies. Some read it as suggesting that societies can choose which path to follow rather than inevitably declining from perfection to pragmatism.

Economists have analyzed the resource distribution models implied in both visions. The Datong society’s approach to goods and labor has been compared to gift economies and resource-based economic models, while the Xiaokang society’s institutional framework anticipates certain aspects of social market economies.

Conclusion: An Enduring Vision of Human Possibility

The conversation between Confucius and Yan Yan on the observation tower above Lu continues to resonate because it addresses fundamental questions about human nature and social organization. The Datong vision challenges us to imagine a world of radical compassion and shared responsibility, while the Xiaokang model offers pragmatic wisdom for governing imperfect societies.

What makes these concepts enduringly relevant is their recognition of both the possibilities and limitations of human nature. They acknowledge our capacity for self-transcendence while providing institutional safeguards against our selfish tendencies. They balance idealistic aspiration with practical governance, reminding us that while perfection may be unattainable, improvement is always possible.

In an era of global challenges—from climate change to economic inequality to cultural conflict—these ancient Chinese concepts offer valuable resources for reimagining our collective future. The vision of a society where the vulnerable are cared for, where resources are shared rather than hoarded, and where doors need not be bolted against neighbors remains as compelling today as it was over two millennia ago when a philosopher sighed upon a tower and dreamed of better worlds.