The Rise of the Eunuchs in the Later Han Dynasty

The Later Han Dynasty, ruling China from 25 to 220 CE, witnessed a gradual erosion of imperial authority, culminating in one of the most dramatic power struggles in ancient history. By the reign of Emperor Ling , the court had become a hotbed of factionalism, with eunuchs emerging as dominant players. These palace attendants, originally intended as servants, leveraged their proximity to the emperor to amass unprecedented influence. They controlled access to the sovereign, manipulated state affairs, and enriched themselves through corruption and patronage networks. Emperor Ling’s reliance on them was profound; he famously referred to the eunuch Zhang Rang as his “father” and Zhao Zhong as his “mother,” illustrating the depth of their psychological hold over him. This intimacy allowed eunuchs to operate with impunity, constructing lavish residences rivaling imperial palaces and bending the machinery of government to their will.

The political landscape was further complicated by the emperor’s paranoia. Earlier in his reign, the eunuchs had encouraged the persecution of the “Partisan Prohibitions,” targeting scholar-officials and students critical of their corruption. By framing these dissenters as threats to stability, the eunuchs consolidated power while eliminating opposition. However, this strategy backfired when some eunuchs were exposed in 184 CE for colluding with the Yellow Turban Rebellion leader Zhang Jiao, a revelation that temporarily shook Emperor Ling’s trust. Yet, the eunuchs’ apologies and scapegoating of colleagues like Wang Fu and Hou Lan allowed them to retain control, demonstrating their resilience and the emperor’s dependency.

The Succession Crisis and Factional Intrigues

Emperor Ling’s death in 189 CE triggered a volatile succession crisis. He had two sons: Liu Bian, the elder, born to Empress He, and Liu Xie, the younger, born to Consort Wang and raised by the emperor’s mother, Empress Dowager Dong. Liu Bian, though the eldest, was considered frivolous and lacking in dignity by his father, who preferred the younger Liu Xie for the throne. On his deathbed, Emperor Ling entrusted Liu Xie to the eunuch Jian Shuo, who commanded the imperial guards. This act was a direct challenge to the He family, whose power derived from Empress He and her brother, General-in-Chief He Jin.

He Jin, as the highest military official, represented the waijia, or maternal relatives, a traditional counterbalance to eunuch influence. With the support of powerful allies like Yuan Shao, a scion of the aristocratic Yuan family, He Jin moved to secure Liu Bian’s succession. Jian Shuo attempted to assassinate He Jin during a supposed meeting, but a warning from Pan Yin, a sympathetic officer, allowed He Jin to escape. He Jin then mobilized troops, ensuring Liu Bian’s coronation as Emperor Shao at age fourteen. Empress He became empress dowager and regent, while He Jin and Yuan Wei, Yuan Shao’s uncle, shared control as co-regents. Liu Xie was enfeoffed as Prince of Bohai, but the tension between the He faction and the eunuchs remained unresolved.

The Plot to Eliminate the Eunuchs

He Jin, urged by Yuan Shao and other reform-minded officials, resolved to purge the eunuchs once and for all. However, Empress Dowager He, indebted to eunuchs like Guo Sheng for her rise to power, resisted their execution. This familial and political divide paralyzed He Jin, who feared both the eunuchs’ retaliation and his sister’s disapproval. Yuan Shao then proposed a radical solution: summoning provincial armies to the capital, Luoyang, to intimidate the empress dowager into consenting. This strategy, while bold, carried immense risk, as it introduced external military forces into the heart of the empire.

He Jin hesitated, but news of the plot leaked to the eunuchs. Feeling cornered, they lured He Jin into the palace under false pretenses and assassinated him in the summer of 189 CE. This act of desperation proved their undoing. He Jin’s officers, led by Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu, stormed the palace in retaliation. In a bloody purge, they slaughtered all eunuchs they could find, including Zhang Rang and Zhao Zhong, who fled but later committed suicide. The violence was indiscriminate and marked the end of eunuch dominance, but it also created a power vacuum that would prove catastrophic.

The Aftermath: Warlords and the Dynasty’s Collapse

The destruction of the eunuchs did not bring stability; instead, it unleashed chaos. The provincial forces summoned by He Jin, notably the army of Dong Zhuo from Liang Province, arrived in Luoyang to find the capital in disarray. Dong Zhuo, a ruthless opportunist, seized control of the court. He deposed the young Emperor Shao, replacing him with the more pliable Liu Xie, who became Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo’s tyranny provoked a coalition of regional governors and generals, plunging the empire into civil war. The Han Dynasty, though nominally surviving until 220 CE, effectively ceased to function as a centralized state.

This period, known as the end of the Eastern Han, set the stage for the Three Kingdoms era, a tumultuous epoch celebrated in literature and folklore. The power vacuum allowed warlords like Cao Cao, Liu Bei, and Sun Quan to rise, each carving out their own domains. The imperial court became a puppet, manipulated by strongmen until its formal abolition. The collapse was not merely political but social and economic, as warfare, famine, and displacement ravaged the population.

Cultural and Social Impacts of the Eunuch Era

The eunuchs’ ascendancy reflected and exacerbated deeper issues within Han society. Their wealth and hubris—building palaces that mimicked the emperor’s own—symbolized the inversion of traditional Confucian hierarchies, where merit and virtue were supposed to prevail. Scholars and officials, marginalized during the Partisan Prohibitions, viewed the eunuchs as corrupt and illegitimate, fueling intellectual dissent. This tension between the inner court became a central theme in historical critiques of the era.

Socially, the eunuchs’ influence challenged norms around family and loyalty. As men severed from biological kinship ties, they created artificial networks through adoption and patronage, often placing their relatives in powerful provincial positions. This nepotism alienated the gentry class and bred resentment among the common people, who suffered under heavy taxation and corruption. The eunuchs’ eventual massacre was seen by many as just retribution, but it also demonstrated the fragility of institutional order when personal rivalries overrode state interests.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

The fall of the Han Dynasty serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked power and institutional decay. The eunuchs’ role highlights how non-traditional actors can exploit access to authority to undermine governance—a theme resonant in modern discussions of corruption and accountability. The succession crisis illustrates the perils of ambiguous leadership transitions, a challenge faced by many regimes throughout history.

In Chinese historiography, the Later Han’s collapse is often portrayed as a moral failure, where greed and factionalism destroyed a golden age. This narrative has influenced centuries of political thought, emphasizing the need for virtuous leadership and balanced power structures. Culturally, the era has been immortalized in works like the “Romance of the Three Kingdoms,” which romanticizes the warlords and scholars of the time, transforming historical figures into archetypes of cunning, bravery, and betrayal.

Today, the story of the Han’s demise reminds us that even the most powerful empires are vulnerable to internal strife. It underscores the importance of transparent institutions, the rule of law, and the dangers of allowing personal loyalties to override the common good. As we reflect on this distant past, we find timeless lessons about power, corruption, and the enduring struggle for stability in human societies.