Introduction: A Philosophical Clash in Ancient China

During the Warring States period of ancient China, a vibrant intellectual landscape flourished as philosophers debated the ideal foundations for social order and governance. Among these thinkers, Mozi and Xunzi stood in stark opposition regarding the role of music and ritual in society. Mozi, advocating utilitarian simplicity, rejected musical expression as wasteful and distracting. In contrast, Xunzi, a Confucian scholar, articulated a sophisticated defense of music’s indispensable social and moral functions. His arguments, preserved in texts such as the Record of Music, present music not as mere entertainment but as a vital force for cultivating harmony, reinforcing ethical norms, and stabilizing the state. This article explores Xunzi’s philosophy of music, its historical context, and its enduring relevance in understanding the power of artistic expression.

The Historical and Intellectual Background

Xunzi lived during the 3rd century BCE, a time of intense political fragmentation and social upheaval in China. As feudal states vied for dominance, philosophers sought to propose systems that could restore order and promote human flourishing. Confucianism, which emphasized moral cultivation through ritual , was one of the leading schools of thought. However, it faced challenges from other perspectives, most notably Mohism, founded by Mozi.

Mozi criticized Confucian practices for their perceived extravagance and lack of practical benefit. He argued that elaborate musical performances drained resources that could be better used to feed the poor and strengthen the state. In his essays “Against Music” and “Moderation in Burial,” Mozi condemned music as a superfluous indulgence that distracted people from their duties. Xunzi, writing after Mozi, sought to refute these claims by reasserting the profound psychological and social necessity of music. He positioned himself within the Confucian tradition, which viewed music as complementary to ritual—both essential tools for educating the people and maintaining a harmonious society.

Xunzi’s Core Argument: Music as an Inevitable Human Expression

Xunzi begins his defense by grounding music in human nature. He asserts that music arises spontaneously from human emotions and is therefore unavoidable. Joy, sorrow, and other feelings naturally express themselves through sound and movement—through song and dance. This expressive impulse is intrinsic to humanity; to suppress it would be to deny a fundamental aspect of human experience. However, Xunzi cautions that without proper guidance, these natural expressions can lead to disorder and chaos. Unregulated music might indulge base emotions, fostering licentiousness or conflict rather than virtue.

To prevent such disorder, ancient sage-kings created refined forms of music, such as the Ya and Song genres found in the Classic of Poetry. These were designed to channel emotional expression in constructive directions. Xunzi describes how the sage-kings crafted music with balanced qualities—modulating pitch, complexity, and rhythm to evoke noble sentiments while excluding corrupting influences. The purpose was not to suppress emotion but to refine it, using music to awaken the innate goodness in people and shield them from negative impulses. This, Xunzi argues, is the true intention behind the institution of music: to cultivate moral character through aesthetic experience.

The Social and Political Functions of Music

Beyond individual cultivation, Xunzi emphasizes music’s role in reinforcing social hierarchies and fostering collective harmony. He provides vivid examples of how music operates in different contexts to promote unity and respect. In the ancestral temple, where rulers and ministers gather, music inspires mutual reverence and consolidates political loyalty. Within families, shared musical experiences strengthen bonds of affection between parents and children, brothers and sisters. In local communities, music brings together elders and youths, encouraging deference and cooperation across generations.

Xunzi explains that music achieves these effects through its structural properties. It establishes a unifying tone that harmonizes diverse elements, much like society requires a shared moral framework. By coordinating instruments and rhythms, music creates a coherent whole from varied parts—a metaphor for social integration. It guides behavior not through coercion but through subtle influence, aligning individual emotions with collective norms. Thus, music becomes a tool for governance, capable of managing complex human dynamics and maintaining order without explicit force.

The Relationship Between Music and Ritual

A key insight in Xunzi’s treatise is the distinction and synergy between music . He summarizes this relationship with the phrase: “Music creates harmony; ritual creates distinction.” Ritual prescribes differentiated roles and responsibilities—it clarifies social boundaries, such as those between ruler and subject, parent and child. Without such distinctions, society would descend into confusion. However, differentiation alone can lead to rigidity and alienation. This is where music intervenes.

Music fosters a sense of commonality and emotional connection that transcends social divisions. While ritual separates, music unites. Together, they balance structure and spontaneity, authority and empathy. For example, ritual ceremonies often incorporate music to soften their formality and evoke shared feelings of reverence or joy. Xunzi argues that both are necessary for a well-ordered society: ritual provides the framework, and music supplies the emotional glue that binds people to that framework. This complementary dynamic ensures that hierarchy does not become oppression and that unity does not dissolve into chaos.

Music as Moral and Military Training

Xunzi extends the utility of music to domains beyond peaceful socialization. He describes how exposure to the Ya and Song genres broadens the mind and elevates aspirations. Listening to dignified music expands one’s intellectual and moral horizons, fostering a sense of nobility and purpose. Moreover, participating in musical performances—especially dances involving shields and axes (gan and qi)—cultivates physical grace and solemnity. These dances, often depicting martial themes, train participants in coordination and discipline.

This connection between music and military discipline is particularly striking. Xunzi observes that the same rhythms and harmonies that promote courtesy indoors can also instill obedience and cohesion on the battlefield. Music used in war rallies troops and ensures synchronized action; used in peace, it facilitates courteous interaction and ritual deference. Thus, music serves both civil and military functions, unifying them under a common principle of order. It prepares individuals to act collectively, whether in ceremonial greetings or in combat, demonstrating the versatility of musical education.

Critique of Mozi’s Utilitarianism

Xunzi directly addresses Mozi’s objections, framing them as shortsighted and ignorant of music’s deeper benefits. Where Mozi sees only waste, Xunzi sees investment in social stability and moral refinement. He argues that abolishing music would not save resources but instead deprive society of a powerful tool for harmony. Without music, emotions would find crude or destructive outlets, leading to greater disorder that would require even more resources to suppress.

Moreover, Xunzi suggests that Mozi misunderstands human nature. Humans are not purely rational beings driven solely by material needs; they are emotional and aesthetic creatures who require artistic expression for psychological well-being. Denying this need would be inhumane and ultimately counterproductive. Xunzi concludes that Mozi’s rejection of music stems from a narrow perspective that fails to appreciate the holistic role of culture in human life. For Xunzi, music is not a luxury but a necessity—an essential component of any civilized society.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

Xunzi’s ideas on music have left a lasting imprint on Chinese culture and beyond. His synthesis of music and ritual influenced subsequent Confucian thought, becoming integral to imperial education and state ceremonies throughout Chinese history. The concept that art should serve moral and social purposes remains a powerful theme in East Asian aesthetic theories. Even today, discussions about the role of music in education often echo Xunzi’s belief in its capacity to shape character and foster social cohesion.

In contemporary terms, Xunzi’s arguments resonate with ongoing debates about the value of arts funding and cultural policy. His insights remind us that music and other arts are not mere decorations but vital forces that influence individual psychology and collective behavior. Whether in classrooms, communities, or nations, music continues to function as a medium for building identity, transmitting values, and promoting harmony. Xunzi’s defense against Mozi’s utilitarianism encourages us to look beyond immediate material costs and consider the profound, though intangible, benefits of cultural expression.

Conclusion: The Enduring Harmony of Xunzi’s Vision

Xunzi’s treatise on music stands as a compelling testament to the power of art in human society. By rooting music in innate emotional needs and demonstrating its utility for moral and social order, he provides a nuanced response to utilitarian critiques. His vision of music as a harmonizing force—complementing ritual, unifying communities, and refining human character—offers timeless wisdom. In an age where the arts are often undervalued or seen as peripheral, Xunzi’s perspective invites us to recognize and cultivate the transformative potential of music. It is not an extravagance but a fundamental pillar of civilization, essential for creating a world where people can live together in harmony and respect.