The Making of a Mongol Statesman

Toghto (1314-1355) emerged during one of the most turbulent periods in Yuan dynasty history. Born into the Merkit Mongol clan, his early life set the stage for his remarkable political career. Orphaned young, he was raised in the household of his powerful uncle Bayan, where he received an exceptional education under the Confucian scholar Wu Zhifang from Pujiang. This bicultural upbringing – combining Mongol military traditions with Chinese administrative learning – became characteristic of the Yuan dynasty’s ruling elite.

His political ascent began remarkably early. At just fifteen, Toghto entered the imperial guard (keshig) serving Crown Prince Ragibagh, the future Emperor Taiding. This early exposure to court politics proved invaluable. By 1334, aged twenty, he had already risen to Vice Commissioner of the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs, followed by appointments as Central Administration Commissioner and Vice Commissioner of the Bureau of Military Affairs.

The Coup Against Bayan and Rise to Power

The year 1338 marked a turning point when Toghto became Grand Censor, placing him at the center of a dangerous power struggle. His uncle Bayan, as Grand Councillor of the Right, had grown increasingly autocratic, monopolizing power and alienating Emperor Ukhaantu Khan. Toghto faced a dilemma – remain loyal to family or to the throne.

In a bold move during February 1340, Toghto orchestrated Bayan’s downfall while the latter was hunting at Willow Grove. This carefully planned coup demonstrated Toghto’s political acumen and marked his emergence as the emperor’s most trusted advisor. By 1341, he assumed the powerful position of Grand Councillor of the Right, becoming the dynasty’s de facto chief administrator at just twenty-seven years old.

The “Great Reforms” Era

Toghto’s early administration (1341-1344) launched sweeping reforms known as the “Great Reforms” (Geng Hua). He reversed many of Bayan’s unpopular policies, including:

– Reinstating the imperial examination system to strengthen the scholar-official class
– Lifting restrictions on horse trading to stimulate commerce
– Reducing salt monopoly quotas that burdened commoners
– Canceling accumulated tax arrears to relieve peasant hardships

These measures temporarily stabilized the faltering dynasty and earned Toghto considerable popularity. His cultural achievements were equally significant – between 1343-1345, he supervised the compilation of the official histories of the Liao, Jin, and Song dynasties, an enormous scholarly undertaking that preserved crucial historical records.

Economic Miscalculations and the Currency Crisis

When Toghto returned to power in 1349, the Yuan faced severe financial strain. Following the advice of Personnel Minister Xizhedu, Toghto implemented radical currency reforms in 1351:

– Introducing new “Zhi Zheng” coins
– Mass printing of paper currency (jiaochao)
– Mandating universal circulation

These poorly executed measures triggered hyperinflation and economic chaos, eroding public trust in the government. The currency crisis coincided with natural disasters, creating a perfect storm of discontent.

The Yellow River Crisis and Peasant Revolts

The catastrophic 1351 Yellow River floods proved another defining challenge. Breaching at White Mulberry Dyke and Golden Dyke, the floods:

– Destroyed vital salt fields in the Huai River region
– Displaced hundreds of thousands
– Severed the Grand Canal transportation network

Toghto mobilized 170,000 laborers under engineer Jia Lu for massive flood control works. While technically successful, the project’s harsh conditions and corrupt officials sparked widespread resentment. The project’s completion in August 1351 ironically coincided with the outbreak of the Red Turban Rebellion.

Military Campaigns and Downfall

As rebellion spread, Toghto took personal command of suppression campaigns. His brutal recapture of Xuzhou in 1352, where he massacred the Red Turban forces of Li Er, earned him the title of Grand Mentor. However, his 1354 siege of Zhang Shicheng’s stronghold at Gaoyou proved disastrous.

At the campaign’s critical moment, jealous rivals including Grand Councillor Hama convinced the emperor that Toghto was:

– Wasting military resources
– Amassing dangerous personal power
– Prolonging the siege unnecessarily

Toghto’s sudden dismissal and exile to Yunnan in 1355 caused complete military collapse at Gaoyou. His poisoning later that year (allegedly by Hama’s agents) marked the tragic end of Yuan’s last capable administrator.

Legacy of a Complex Reformer

Toghto’s posthumous rehabilitation in 1362 came too late to save the crumbling dynasty. His legacy remains contested:

– As a reformer who temporarily stabilized Yuan governance
– As a military leader whose campaigns both suppressed and inflamed rebellion
– As an economic manager whose policies alternated between visionary and disastrous

Modern historians view Toghto as a transitional figure whose career encapsulated the Yuan dynasty’s central paradox – a Mongol regime increasingly dependent on Chinese administrative systems yet unable to fully reconcile ethnic divisions or address systemic corruption. His life’s work ultimately could not prevent the Ming dynasty’s rise, but his ambitious reforms and cultural projects left enduring marks on Chinese history.

The dramatic arc of Toghto’s career – from orphaned nephew to powerful chancellor to disgraced exile – mirrors the Yuan dynasty’s own trajectory from dominance to collapse. His story offers valuable insights into the challenges of multicultural governance and the complex interplay between reform and revolution in China’s imperial past.