Introduction: A Nation in Turmoil

The closing years of Wang Mang’s Xin Dynasty represented one of the most turbulent periods in Chinese history. Following the collapse of the Western Han Dynasty, Wang Mang’s ambitious reform programs had largely failed, leading to widespread economic distress, administrative breakdown, and social unrest. Natural disasters, including severe famines, exacerbated the suffering of ordinary people, creating conditions ripe for rebellion. Across the empire, desperate peasants and displaced persons began forming armed groups for protection and survival. It was from this chaos that Liu Xuan, later known as the Gengshi Emperor, would briefly emerge as a central figure—only to demonstrate how quickly power could be gained and lost during times of revolution.

The Early Life of Liu Xuan

Liu Xuan, styled Shengong, came from a branch of the imperial Liu family that had ruled the Western Han Dynasty. His familial connection to the former ruling house would later become significant to his political legitimacy. Historical records indicate that Liu Xuan’s younger brother was murdered, prompting Liu to gather followers to seek vengeance. When one of these associates committed a crime, Liu found himself pursued by authorities. In a dramatic turn, he fled to Pinglin to escape capture, but officials arrested his father Liu Zizhang in his place. Displaying early cunning, Liu Xuan feigned his own death and had associates transport an empty coffin back to his hometown of Chongling, convincing authorities to release his father. This escape marked the beginning of Liu Xuan’s life as a fugitive, during which he would develop connections with various anti-government elements.

The Green Woods Rebellion Emerges

As Wang Mang’s regime continued to falter, southern China experienced devastating famines that drove people to desperate measures. Peasants gathered in marshlands to dig for water chestnuts and other wild foods, often fighting among themselves for scarce resources. In this environment of collective desperation, two men from Xinshi—Wang Kuang and Wang Feng—emerged as natural leaders by mediating disputes among the starving population. Their fairness in settling conflicts earned them respect, and soon hundreds flocked to their leadership.

The movement gained momentum when famous outlaws like Ma Wu, Wang Chang, and Cheng Dan joined their ranks. This growing force began attacking small settlements and eventually established a hidden stronghold in the Lülin Mountains , giving the rebellion its famous name. Within months, their numbers swelled to seven or eight thousand followers. In 21 CE, the provincial governor of Jingzhou dispatched twenty thousand troops to suppress the rebellion, but Wang Kuang’s forces scored a stunning victory at Yundu, killing thousands of government soldiers and capturing their supplies. This military success allowed them to capture Jingling and subsequently raid Yundu and Anlu, where they seized women and supplies before returning to their mountain base. By this time, the Green Woods Army had grown to over fifty thousand members, completely beyond the control of local authorities.

Fracturing and Expansion of Rebel Forces

In 22 CE, a devastating epidemic swept through the rebel encampments, killing nearly half of the Green Woods fighters. This catastrophe forced the remaining forces to disperse into separate groups. Wang Chang and Cheng Dan moved west into Nan Province, becoming known as the Lower Yangtze Army. Meanwhile, Wang Kuang, Wang Feng, Ma Wu, and their lieutenants Zhu Wei and Zhang Ang moved north into Nanyang, forming the New Market Army. All these commanders adopted the title of general, reflecting their autonomous military authority.

In July of that year, when Wang Kuang’s forces failed to capture Sui County, another rebellion emerged in Pinglin led by Chen Mu and Liao Zhan. Their Pinglin Army, approximately one thousand strong, allied with the larger rebel groups. It was at this moment that Liu Xuan joined Chen Mu’s forces, receiving an appointment as an security officer. This position marked Liu Xuan’s formal entry into the organized resistance against Wang Mang’s regime.

The Liu Family Enters the Rebellion

Simultaneously, another significant development was occurring elsewhere. Liu Xiu and his elder brother Liu Bosheng raised their own forces in Chongling, representing the imperial Liu clan’s direct challenge to Wang Mang’s legitimacy. These well-connected and educated scions of the former ruling house brought considerable political credibility to the rebellion. In January of 23 CE, the combined rebel forces achieved a major victory against Wang Mang’s army, defeating and killing commanders Zhen Fu and Liang Qiuci.

Following this success, the various rebel leaders faced the challenge of unifying their diverse forces. Despite Liu Xuan’s limited military accomplishments or leadership qualities, the commanders collectively decided to elevate him to imperial status. His membership in the Liu family made him a acceptable compromise candidate to the different factions, none of whom wanted a rival commander to gain supremacy. On February 22, 23 CE, they established an altar on the sands of the Yu River and held a grand military assembly to proclaim Liu Xuan as emperor.

The Reluctant Emperor

The enthronement ceremony revealed much about Liu Xuan’s character and preparedness for leadership. When placed before the assembled generals and troops, the newly proclaimed emperor appeared overwhelmed. Historical accounts describe him as visibly nervous, sweating profusely, and unable to speak when raising his hand to acknowledge the crowd. This display of weakness did not inspire confidence, but the political momentum had already been established.

Liu Xuan took the reign title “Gengshi” and declared a general amnesty. He then distributed titles and positions to his supporters: his uncle Liu Liang became State Elder, Wang Kuang received the title of Dingguo Duke, Wang Feng became Chengguo Duke, Zhu Wei was appointed Grand Marshal, Liu Bosheng became Grand Minister over the Masses, and Chen Mu received the position of Grand Minister of Works. Numerous other followers were appointed as ministers and generals, creating an entire court structure virtually overnight.

Military Success and Internal Tensions

In May 23 CE, Liu Bosheng scored a significant victory by capturing the important city of Wan. The following month, Emperor Gengshi established his capital there and began distributing noble titles to clan members and commanders, creating over one hundred marquises. However, these successes masked growing tensions within the rebel leadership. The emperor grew increasingly suspicious of Liu Bosheng’s military reputation and popularity among the troops. Eventually, these suspicions led Gengshi to order the execution of his capable general, replacing him with Liu Ci as Grand Minister over the Masses.

This political murder demonstrated the fragile nature of the Gengshi regime and the emperor’s inability to manage talented subordinates. Meanwhile, elsewhere in the empire, other members of the Liu family were raising their own banners against Wang Mang. Liu Wang, the former Marquis of Zhongwu, established himself in Runan with support from Yan You and Chen Mao, two of Wang Mang’s generals who had defected after their defeat at Kunyang.

The Collapse of the Gengshi Regime

Despite his imperial title, Liu Xuan proved utterly unprepared for the responsibilities of governance. Contemporary historians describe him as spending most of his time drinking and amusing himself with women, while paying little attention to administrative matters. His court similarly descended into corruption and incompetence, with officials more concerned with personal enrichment than effective governance.

As the government deteriorated, military discipline broke down. The emperor’s forces began plundering the civilian population they were supposed to protect, turning popular support against the regime. Within three years of its establishment, the Gengshi government faced widespread rebellions and challenges from within its own ranks. The final blow came when the Red Eyebrows, another major rebel movement, turned against Liu Xuan’s regime and marched on the capital.

The Tragic End of an Emperor

In 25 CE, as the Red Eyebrows forces closed in, Liu Xuan’s government collapsed completely. The emperor attempted to flee but was eventually captured. His captors showed little mercy to the failed ruler—Liu Xuan was executed by strangulation, bringing his brief and disastrous reign to a violent end. His death marked the conclusion of one of the most spectacularly unsuccessful imperial rules in Chinese history, a cautionary tale about the dangers of obtaining power without the corresponding ability to wield it responsibly.

Historical Assessment and Legacy

The reign of the Gengshi Emperor represents a fascinating historical interlude between Wang Mang’s failed Xin Dynasty and the restoration of the Han Dynasty under Emperor Guangwu. Historians have generally judged Liu Xuan harshly, viewing him as a weak figure elevated by circumstances beyond his control who then failed to rise to the challenges of leadership. His reign demonstrates how revolutionary movements can successfully overthrow established regimes yet struggle to establish stable governance themselves.

The Gengshi period also illustrates the complex dynamics of the Han restoration. While multiple claimants from the Liu family sought to position themselves as legitimate heirs to the imperial throne, it was ultimately Liu Xiu who demonstrated the necessary military skill, political acumen, and administrative competence to reunify the empire. The contrast between Liu Xuan’s disastrous reign and Guangwu’s successful establishment of the Eastern Han Dynasty offers valuable insights into the qualities required for effective leadership during periods of profound transition.

Furthermore, the Gengshi Emperor’s story serves as a reminder that noble lineage alone does not guarantee capable leadership. Despite his imperial bloodline, Liu Xuan lacked the vision, discipline, and judgment necessary to navigate the treacherous political waters of his time. His rapid ascent and even more rapid downfall underscore the volatile nature of power during periods of civil unrest and the precarious position of figures who obtain authority through circumstance rather than merit.

In the broader narrative of Chinese history, the Gengshi Emperor remains a tragic figure—a man thrust into a role for which he was fundamentally unsuited, whose failures contributed to further suffering and conflict, but whose story offers enduring lessons about the responsibilities of power and the consequences of leadership failure. His reign stands as a brief but instructive chapter in the long history of China’s imperial system, reminding us that the possession of power is never synonymous with the ability to wield it wisely.