The Longest Reign in Ming History Begins

In 1572, a ten-year-old boy ascended the Dragon Throne as the Wanli Emperor, beginning what would become the longest reign in Ming dynasty history. Zhu Yijun, posthumously known as Emperor Shenzong, would rule China for an unprecedented forty-eight years during one of the dynasty’s most turbulent periods. His reign witnessed the spectacular rise and dramatic decline of Ming power, with the succession crisis known as the “Dispute Over the Nation’s Foundation” (国本之争) standing as its defining political struggle.

The young emperor’s early years saw the capable statesman Zhang Juzheng steering imperial policy, but after Zhang’s death in 1582, the twenty-year-old Wanli began asserting personal control. This transition coincided with the emergence of palace intrigues that would dominate court politics for decades. The emperor’s romantic attachment to Consort Zheng would soon challenge centuries of Confucian succession principles and divide the imperial court into warring factions.

The Origins of a Dynastic Crisis

The succession crisis had its roots in the Wanli Emperor’s personal life and the rigid protocols of imperial inheritance. In 1582, when the emperor was twenty, Consort Wang gave birth to his first son, Zhu Changluo. Four years later, his favorite consort Zheng bore another son, Zhu Changxun. This seemingly ordinary event—an emperor fathering children by different consorts—became explosive because Empress Wang remained childless.

According to Ming ancestral law, the throne should pass to the eldest son when no heir apparent existed (the principle of “无嫡立长”). Court officials naturally expected the emperor to name Zhu Changluo as crown prince. However, Wanli’s clear preference for Consort Zheng and her son created a political firestorm. The emperor’s reluctance to formally designate an heir apparent, combined with Consort Zheng’s ambitions for her own son, transformed a routine succession matter into a decades-long constitutional crisis.

The Battle Lines Are Drawn

In 1586, just one month after Zhu Changxun’s birth, Grand Secretary Shen Shixing led senior officials in petitioning the emperor to name Zhu Changluo as crown prince. Their memorial invoked dynastic precedent, noting that earlier Ming emperors had named heirs at even younger ages. The Wanli Emperor’s evasive response—claiming his eldest son was too weak and requesting a two-to-three year delay—only heightened suspicions.

The conflict intensified when two junior officials, Jiang Yinglin and Shen, directly challenged imperial favoritism. Their memorial pointedly asked why Consort Zheng received promotion immediately after childbirth while Consort Wang remained neglected despite five years of service. The emperor’s furious reaction—exiling both officials—revealed the emotional stakes of what was becoming a battle between imperial prerogative and bureaucratic principle.

The Political Storm Escalates

For the next fifteen years, the succession question dominated court politics. In 1589, when the Wanli Emperor summoned senior ministers to discuss the matter, he offered vague assurances about following proper order while emphasizing his eldest son’s “weakness.” A touching scene followed as the emperor presented both princes to his ministers, holding the nine-year-old Zhu Changluo affectionately. Officials left convinced the matter was settled, but months passed without any formal declaration.

The emperor’s continued stalling tactics provoked increasing frustration. In 1593, when the Ministry of Rites proposed preparing ceremonial items for the heir apparent’s establishment, the Wanli Emperor again postponed action. The pattern repeated throughout the 1590s—officials petitioning, the emperor delaying, and punishments meted out to those who pressed too aggressively. By 1600, over thirty officials had been demoted, exiled, or beaten for their involvement in the succession debate.

The Scandal of the “Anxious and Perilous Treatise”

The controversy reached its climax with the mysterious appearance of two political pamphlets that shook the imperial court. In 1598, the first document titled “Anxious and Perilous Treatise” (忧危竑议) circulated secretly before appearing openly in the capital. This explosive text compiled historical examples of illegitimate successions, clearly targeting Consort Zheng and her faction.

The political fallout was immediate and severe. Officials suspected of authoring or spreading the treatise faced brutal reprisals. Zheng Guotai, Consort Zheng’s brother, capitalized on the scandal to eliminate opponents. While the treatise’s true origins remain debated, its appearance marked a turning point—after 1598, open opposition to Consort Zheng became increasingly dangerous.

The scandal resurfaced dramatically in 1601 when a sequel pamphlet, “Continued Anxious and Perilous Treatise,” appeared overnight across Beijing. This text alleged an ongoing conspiracy to replace Zhu Changluo with Zhu Changxun, naming specific officials involved. The resulting witch hunt further poisoned the political atmosphere, demonstrating how deeply the succession dispute had divided the Ming establishment.

Resolution and Lasting Consequences

Facing unrelenting pressure, the Wanli Emperor finally relented in 1601, formally investing Zhu Changluo as crown prince at age nineteen. However, the damage to Ming governance proved irreversible. The four-decade struggle had:

1. Crippled effective governance as policy debates became entangled with factional alignments on the succession issue
2. Eroded trust between the emperor and his officials, with the throne increasingly retreating from daily administration
3. Established destructive precedents for factional politics that would plague the late Ming court
4. Wasted critical years when the dynasty faced mounting external threats and internal decline

The aftermath proved equally turbulent. The “Three Cases of Late Ming”—the 1615 Palace Assault Case, the 1620 Red Pill Case, and the 1620 Palace Move Case—all grew from unresolved tensions surrounding the succession dispute. These scandals further weakened the dynasty as it confronted the Manchu threat and widespread peasant rebellions.

The Human Dimension of a Constitutional Crisis

Beyond its political consequences, the succession crisis revealed the personal tragedies beneath imperial formalism. Consort Zheng’s rise from palace maid to favored concubine exemplified the volatile nature of imperial favor, while her ultimate failure to secure her son’s succession demonstrated the enduring power of Confucian bureaucratic norms. The neglected Zhu Changluo’s brief, unhappy reign as the Taichang Emperor (lasting just one month in 1620) underscored the human costs of the prolonged struggle.

The Wanli Emperor himself became increasingly isolated, his early promise giving way to decades of bitter stalemate with his officials. The succession crisis that consumed his reign reflected broader tensions in Ming governance—between imperial authority and bureaucratic ideals, between personal affection and institutional duty. In the end, neither the emperor nor his ministers emerged victorious from this struggle that so weakened the dynasty before its ultimate collapse in 1644.

The Wanli succession dispute stands as a cautionary tale about the dangers when personal relationships collide with constitutional principles in imperial systems. Its legacy shaped the final decades of Ming rule, contributing to the political dysfunction that made the dynasty vulnerable to internal rebellion and external conquest. For historians, it remains one of imperial China’s most revealing case studies in the complex interplay between love, power, and statecraft.