The Foundations of Human Society

Human society rests not upon our ideals but upon our nature. This fundamental proposition has echoed through centuries of philosophical discourse and historical analysis. The composition of humanity—those deep-seated tendencies that define our species—ultimately shapes the structure of nations, civilizations, and the entire course of human history. But what exactly constitutes this human nature that so powerfully influences our collective destiny?

We might define human nature as the most basic inclinations and emotions inherent to our species. These fundamental tendencies, often called instincts, form the bedrock upon which all human interaction and social organization is built. While scholars continue to debate the precise degree to which these tendencies are innate versus learned, historical evidence suggests a remarkable consistency in human behavior across millennia.

The Character Elements of Humanity

Through what we might term a “character element table,” we can systematically describe human nature. This analysis suggests humans typically inherit six positive and six negative instincts that function to protect individuals, families, groups, and ultimately the entire species. In individuals with positive personalities, the constructive tendencies dominate, but most people possess both sets of instincts—the capacity for courageous engagement or passive withdrawal depending on circumstances and mood.

Each instinct develops into habits accompanied by various emotions. The sum total of these instincts, habits, and emotions constitutes what we call human nature. This complex interplay explains why humans respond to life’s fundamental challenges and opportunities with either brave confrontation or cautious retreat. The consistency of these responses across cultures and eras suggests something fundamental and enduring about our species’ psychological makeup.

The Paradox of Human Constancy

How much has human nature actually changed throughout history? Theoretically, it must have evolved somewhat, as natural selection presumably operates on psychological characteristics just as it does on physical traits. Yet observed human behavior has shown remarkably little transformation over recorded history.

The ancient Greeks of Plato’s time behaved remarkably like modern French people, while Romans displayed characteristics we would recognize in contemporary English society. Though lifestyles and tools have changed dramatically, the fundamental motives and goals remain constant: action versus rest, acquisition versus abandonment, confrontation versus retreat, sociability versus solitude, courtship versus rejection, and the providing or withholding of parental affection.

Social class creates no fundamental difference in human nature either. Generally speaking, the poor and wealthy share the same impulses—the difference lies primarily in opportunity and skill rather than inherent desire. History repeatedly demonstrates that successful revolutionaries typically adopt the very methods they previously condemned, suggesting that means may change while underlying motivations remain constant.

Social Versus Biological Evolution

Human evolution throughout history has been predominantly social rather than biological. Our development has occurred not through genetic modification of the species but primarily through economic, political, intellectual, and ethical innovations transmitted individually and across generations through imitation, custom, and education.

Customs and traditions within groups align with species type and genetic factors, as well as with individual instincts. They continuously adapt to typical and recurring situations. However, novel circumstances do emerge that require unconventional responses. Thus, advanced biological development requires the capacity for experimentation and innovation—the dynamic social relationship between evolution and mutation. Social evolution represents the interactive process between habit and innovation.

The Role of Extraordinary Individuals

The innovative individual—the “great man,” “hero,” or “genius”—earns their place in history through their response to shaping forces. They are not entirely the divine figures Thomas Carlyle imagined, but rather products of their time and place—simultaneously the executors and spokespersons of historical events, as well as their products and symbols. Without the pressure of circumstances, their novel ideas would remain untimely and impractical.

When a practical hero emerges, intensified by their position and crisis, they can unleash enormous power that might otherwise remain dormant potential. Yet they are not merely results of historical events; events unfold through and around them, and their ideas and decisions significantly influence historical trajectories. Sometimes their eloquence, like Winston Churchill’s, can mobilize nations against overwhelming odds. Sometimes their strategic and tactical vision, like Napoleon’s, can win wars and establish nations. Sometimes their prophetic inspiration, like Muhammad’s, can motivate the poor and disadvantaged to generate incredible initiative and astonishing power.

Figures like Louis Pasteur, Samuel Morse, Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, Frank Lloyd Wright, Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Mao Zedong represent both the results of countless causes and the sources of endless consequences. Their impact demonstrates how individual agency interacts with historical forces to shape human destiny.

The Imitation-Innovation Dynamic

In our character element table, imitation and innovation appear as opposing forces, yet in actual historical processes, they cooperate interdependently. A society functions orderly because compliant natures combine with competitive individuals. The imitative majority follows the innovative minority, who in turn follow original individuals developing new ways to adapt to environmental and survival demands.

History is largely created through conflicts among innovative minorities, with the majority applauding the victors and serving as the human material for social experimentation. This dynamic tension between conservation and change has driven human progress while maintaining social stability through periods of transformation.

The Double-Edged Sword of Intelligence

Intelligence represents a significant force in history but can also be divisive and destructive. For every hundred new ideas, at least ninety-nine might prove inferior to the traditions they seek to replace. No individual, however brilliant or knowledgeable, can possibly make wise judgments about all their society’s customs and conventions within a single lifetime. These practices represent the accumulated wisdom and experience of countless generations over centuries.

An energetic young person might question why they cannot enjoy complete sexual freedom without observing customs, morals, and legal regulations. Until they mature sufficiently to understand sexuality as a powerful force requiring careful channeling, restraint, and self-discipline, rejection of these boundaries could lead to personal and collective chaos with life-altering consequences.

Resistance to Change and Historical Progress

Those who resist change play a crucial role in historical processes. Conservatism provides stability and continuity, allowing societies to preserve valuable traditions and tested practices. The tension between innovation and preservation creates the dynamic equilibrium that enables progress without catastrophic disruption. History shows that the most successful societies balance respect for tradition with openness to improvement, recognizing that human nature remains constant even as circumstances evolve.

This enduring human nature—with its consistent instincts, emotions, and tendencies—explains why historical patterns repeat across civilizations and epochs. The same fundamental motivations drive human behavior whether in ancient Athens or modern New York, imperial Rome or contemporary London. Understanding this unchanging heart of humanity provides the key to comprehending history’s broad patterns and anticipating future developments.

The study of history ultimately reveals less about changing circumstances than about enduring human nature. Our tools, institutions, and knowledge have transformed beyond recognition, but the essential human being—with the same hopes, fears, ambitions, and limitations—remains remarkably consistent. This understanding does not diminish human achievement but rather highlights our extraordinary capacity to create diverse civilizations while remaining fundamentally the same species. The constancy of human nature across time and culture represents one of history’s most profound and important lessons.