Introduction: A Forgotten Kingmaker

In the turbulent mid-19th century, as the Qing Dynasty faced internal rebellions and foreign invasions, an unlikely figure rose to become the de facto ruler of China. Sushun, a minor imperial clansman, would wield unprecedented power during Emperor Xianfeng’s reign, implementing controversial policies that challenged centuries of tradition. His story reveals the desperate measures the Qing court took to survive multiple crises, and how his actions inadvertently shaped modern China’s political landscape.

Imperial Kinship and Early Career

Sushun was born into the imperial clan as the sixth son of Ulgungga, the Prince Zheng. Understanding his background requires examining the Qing imperial system’s complex hierarchy. Unlike the Ming Dynasty that preceded it, the Qing established strict controls over imperial relatives. Not all imperial sons received princely titles, and those who did received no territorial domains—merely residences in Beijing that could be reclaimed if their descendants’ ranks diminished through generations.

The Prince Zheng title belonged to the “iron-cap” princes—the eight families whose titles could pass to heirs without reduction in rank. This privileged status traced back to Jirgalang, Nurhaci’s nephew and the first Prince Zheng. By Xianfeng’s reign, this branch represented distant imperial relatives who maintained influence through this hereditary privilege.

As a younger son without inheritance rights to the princely title, Sushun belonged to the “idle aristocracy”—imperial clansmen without specific duties. Unlike many contemporaries who relied on status alone, Sushun pursued advancement through the imperial examination system during the Daoguang era, earning appointment as a third-class auxiliary general. This demonstrated both his capability and ambition within a system that increasingly valued merit over pure birthright.

Ascent to Power Under Xianfeng

Sushun’s rise accelerated dramatically when Xianfeng ascended the throne in 1850. The new emperor, facing unprecedented challenges, sought capable officials beyond traditional circles. Sushun’s competence and willingness to take responsibility caught the emperor’s attention, leading to rapid promotions.

By 1854, Sushun held multiple key positions: imperial bodyguard, vice-commander of the banners, and commandant of the guard corps. He later became vice-minister of works and then rites. This accumulation of offices was unusual in the normally bureaucratic Qing system and reflected Xianfeng’s growing dependence on him.

Sushun’s advancement coincided with the fluctuating fortunes of Prince Gong, Xianfeng’s brother. Initially powerful as lead grand councilor, Prince Gong’s influence waned as Sushun’s grew. Xianfeng broke with precedent by appointing imperial princes Zaiyuan and Duanhua to the Grand Council. Although Sushun never formally joined this powerful body, he effectively controlled it through these allies who lacked independent judgment.

The Crisis Manager in Troubled Times

The 1850s presented the Qing Dynasty with its greatest challenges since its establishment. The Taiping Rebellion controlled much of southern China, the Nian Rebellion threatened northern provinces, and Anglo-French forces advanced toward Beijing after the Arrow War. Traditional institutions appeared inadequate against these threats.

Sushun responded with pragmatic, often ruthless measures. His most controversial policy reversed two centuries of Qing precedent: instead of favoring Manchus, he actively promoted Han Chinese officials. He treated Manchu officials with contempt, addressing them as slaves while respectfully calling Han officials “sir.” This calculated approach recognized that Han officials had demonstrated greater effectiveness in dealing with the crises.

His corruption practices followed this same pattern—he accepted bribes from Manchus but never from Han Chinese, consciously building his reputation as a champion of Han capabilities. This represented a revolutionary shift in Qing policy, which had always maintained Manchu dominance, particularly in military affairs.

The Examination Scandal and Execution of Bojun

In 1858, Sushun demonstrated his ruthlessness when he investigated corruption in the顺天府 provincial examinations. Discovering that the chief examiner Bojun—a grand councilor and grand secretary—had leaked questions, Sushun had him executed at Caishikou, Beijing’s public execution ground.

This was extraordinary—high-ranking officials were typically allowed to commit suicide or were secretly executed to preserve imperial dignity. Bojun himself expected exile, preparing his carriage for journey to the frontier. His public beheading sent shockwaves through the bureaucracy, establishing Sushun’s reputation for merciless enforcement of standards.

Military and Financial Reforms

Recognizing the Eight Banner armies’ incompetence, Sushun implemented controversial military reforms. He drastically reduced funding for the banner forces, which consumed enormous resources while consistently losing battles against rebels. This earned him bitter hatred from the Manchu establishment whose privileges he threatened.

Simultaneously, he championed local militia forces, particularly the Xiang Army led by Zeng Guofeng. This represented a radical departure from Qing tradition, which distrusted Han military leadership. Sushun recognized that only these locally-raised forces could effectively combat the Taiping rebels.

His support for Han commanders created tension with Xianfeng, who hesitated to appoint Zeng Guofeng as provincial governor—a position necessary for collecting taxes to fund his troops. Sushun cleverly managed this situation, advocating for Han leadership while respecting the emperor’s reservations. When the governor-general of Liangjiang abandoned his post, Sushun advised against transferring Hu Linyi from Hubei, recognizing his effective administration there while subtly advancing Han influence.

Personality and Leadership Style

Contemporary accounts describe Sushun as arrogant and domineering. His treatment of Zhou Zupei, a senior co-minister of revenue, illustrates this character. When Zhou completed documents, Sushun would publicly cross them out with red ink, humiliating his colleague who could only endure silently. Sushun viewed conventional bureaucrats as ineffective, preferring action-oriented officials regardless of background.

This abrasive style extended to his governance approach. He centralized decision-making, bypassing normal channels and relying directly on imperial authority. While efficient in crisis management, this approach alienated much of the bureaucracy and imperial clan.

Cultural Impact and Changing Perceptions

Sushun’s policies initiated a subtle but significant cultural shift in Qing governance. By promoting Han officials and challenging Manchu privilege, he began breaking down ethnic barriers that had defined the dynasty for two centuries. His patronage of Han scholars like Wang Kaiyun, Li Shourong, and Gao Xinkui created new intellectual networks that would influence later reforms.

His ruthless anti-corruption campaign, while controversial, temporarily restored some credibility to the examination system. The execution of Bojun demonstrated that even the highest officials faced consequences for corruption—a powerful message during a period of institutional decay.

The Downfall and Historical Legacy

Sushun’s dominance ended abruptly when Xianfeng died in 1861. As one of eight regents appointed for the young Tongzhi Emperor, he attempted to maintain power against the dowager empresses Cixi and Ci’an and Prince Gong. In the Xinyou Coup, the empress dowagers allied with Prince Gong to arrest the regents.

Sushun was executed for treason, his policies reversed, and his name condemned in official histories. His Han associates like Zeng Guofeng retained power, but the Manchu establishment restored its privileges temporarily.

Despite his tragic end, Sushun’s legacy endured through the officials he promoted. The Han leaders who eventually suppressed the Taiping Rebellion and launched the Self-Strengthening Movement owed their opportunities partly to his advocacy. His pragmatic approach to crisis management—emphasizing capability over ethnicity—anticipated later developments in Chinese governance.

Modern Relevance and Historical Reassessment

Recent historians have reevaluated Sushun’s contributions, recognizing his pragmatic response to existential threats. While his methods were severe and his personality flawed, his policies addressed systemic problems that had weakened Qing governance. His willingness to challenge centuries of tradition demonstrated remarkable flexibility in a system known for conservatism.

The ethnic tensions Sushun navigated—between Manchu privilege and Han capability—continue to resonate in modern China’s policies toward ethnic minorities. His recognition that effective governance requires utilizing talent regardless of background remains relevant today.

Sushun’s story also illustrates the perennial challenge of reform in bureaucratic systems. His rapid rise and fall demonstrate both the potential for change during crises and the resistance such changes provoke from established interests. The pattern of pragmatic crisis management followed by conservative backlash would repeat throughout late Qing history.

Conclusion: The Pragmatist in a Dynasty in Crisis

Sushun emerges from history as a complex figure—ruthless yet effective, arrogant yet visionary within his context. Operating during one of the Qing Dynasty’s most challenging periods, he implemented unpopular but necessary reforms that preserved the state while transforming its governance.

His legacy represents both the possibilities and limitations of reform within traditional systems. By promoting capability over birthright and challenging ethnic hierarchies, he pointed toward a more meritocratic future. That his reforms were reversed after his death illustrates the powerful resistance to change within established systems.

Ultimately, Sushun’s story reminds us that moments of crisis often produce unconventional leaders whose methods may be controversial but whose impact endures beyond their lifetimes. His recognition that survival sometimes requires breaking with tradition remains a relevant lesson for governments facing existential challenges today.