Introduction: An Unprecedented System of Secrecy

In the annals of Chinese imperial history, few successions were as meticulously planned yet shrouded in mystery as that of the Qianlong Emperor. The early 18th century witnessed the establishment of China’s first formalized system of secret succession designation, a revolutionary departure from previous practices that had often led to political instability, court factions, and sometimes violent transitions of power. This innovative approach to imperial succession emerged during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, who sought to eliminate the uncertainties that had plagued previous dynastic transitions. The system he created would not only ensure his chosen successor’s smooth ascension but would become institutionalized for future successions, representing a significant development in the political history of the Qing dynasty.

The Qing dynasty marked the last imperial regime to rule China, established by the Manchu people who originated from northeast Asia. By the time of the Yongzheng Emperor’s reign, the Qing had consolidated their control over China proper but continued to face challenges in maintaining stability within the imperial household itself. The secret succession system emerged as a solution to one of the most persistent problems in Chinese imperial history: how to ensure a peaceful transition of power while maintaining the emperor’s absolute authority until his final breath.

Historical Context: The Precedent of Kangxi’s Succession

To understand the significance of Yongzheng’s innovation, we must examine the succession crisis that preceded his own ascension. The Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng’s father, had reigned for an extraordinary 61 years , the longest verified reign in Chinese history. His advanced age and prolonged rule created intense competition among his many sons, who formed factions and plotted against one another in what became known as the “Succession Struggle among the Princes.”

Kangxi had initially designated his second son, Yinreng, as crown prince in 1675, but after Yinreng’s repeated misconduct and alleged plots against the emperor, Kangxi deposed him not once but twice , which he believed encouraged premature power struggles and divided court loyalties.

In his final years, Kangxi essentially practiced an informal version of secret succession. Without publicly announcing his choice, he appears to have decided on his fourth son, Yinzhen , claims that would dog Yongzheng throughout his reign.

The Formalization of Secret Succession

On the seventeenth day of the eighth month in the first year of his reign , the emperor’s formal residence in the Forbidden City. The phrase “正大光明” itself came from the calligraphy of the Shunzhi Emperor, the first Qing emperor to rule China proper, adding symbolic weight to the location.

The emperor’s announcement was met with immediate approval from his ministers, particularly from Longkodo, who praised the emperor’s thorough consideration and assured him of their complete compliance. After the general assembly dismissed, Yongzheng retained four senior ministers to witness the actual placement of the sealed box behind the tablet, thus formalizing the secret succession system.

This system represented several important innovations. First, it provided certainty that a successor had been chosen, avoiding the power vacuum that could occur if an emperor died unexpectedly without a designated heir. Second, it maintained secrecy about the identity of the successor, preventing the formation of factions around a crown prince that might challenge the reigning emperor’s authority. Third, it created a verifiable, physical record of the emperor’s choice that could be accessed when needed.

The Designated Successor: Hongli, Prince Bao

Although the contents of the sealed box remained officially secret, the emperor’s fourth son, Hongli , was almost certainly the designated successor from the beginning. Born in 1711 to Empress Xiaoshengxian, Hongli had enjoyed the special favor of his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor, who had personally overseen aspects of his education and upbringing—an unusual honor that signaled special regard.

Yongzheng took elaborate measures to maintain the fiction of uncertainty about his succession plans. He treated Hongli and his fifth son, Hongzhou, with nearly identical favor, assigning them similar responsibilities and honors. Both princes were frequently called upon to perform ceremonial duties such as conducting sacrifices to heaven and ancestors. Both were involved in handling affairs concerning the Miao ethnic regions in southwest China. Most significantly, both were elevated to princely rank on the same day in 1733, with Hongli becoming Prince Bao .

Despite these efforts to maintain equality between the princes, observant court officials detected subtle indications of Hongli’s special status. The first telling incident occurred in the first month of Yongzheng’s reign when the emperor returned from his inaugural sacrifice at the Temple of Heaven. He summoned Hongli to the Hall of Mental Cultivation and presented him with a piece of sacrificial meat—an honor not extended to Hongzhou. In Confucian ritual tradition, the emperor’s communication with heaven during the sacrifice and his subsequent distribution of sacrificial offerings carried profound symbolic meaning. Hongli himself interpreted this as a sign that his father had secretly communicated his intention to establish him as successor during the ceremony.

The princely titles themselves provided another clue. While Hongzhou received the title “Prince He” would later interpret “Bao” as meaning “treasure” or “jade seal”—a clear reference to the imperial seal and thus to the succession.

Contingency Planning: The duplicate edict at the old summer palace

Understanding that he spent much of his time away from the Forbidden City, Yongzheng created a duplicate succession edict for safekeeping at the Yuanmingyuan . Originally constructed by Kangxi and gifted to Yongzheng when he was still a prince, the Yuanmingyuan underwent significant expansion during Yongzheng’s reign and became his primary residence for much of the year. The emperor recognized that if he were to die suddenly at Yuanmingyuan, retrieving the succession document from the Forbidden City could create dangerous delays or opportunities for manipulation.

The existence of this duplicate edict was known only to two trusted officials: Zhang Tingyu and Ortai . In the ninth month of 1723, when Yongzheng fell seriously ill, he secretly informed these two ministers about the duplicate document at Yuanmingyuan. He reiterated this confidence in the first month of 1732, emphasizing that besides themselves, “not one other person knows about this.”

Zhang Tingyu and Ortai represented the pinnacle of Yongzheng’s administrative system. Zhang, a Han Chinese from Anhui province, came from a distinguished family of officials and had served under Kangxi before becoming one of Yongzheng’s most trusted advisers. Ortai, a Manchu from the Blue Banner, had risen through military ranks and became a key administrator in southwestern China before joining the central government. Their selection as guardians of this secret reflected Yongzheng’s practice of balancing ethnic representation in his inner circle while choosing officials known for their competence and loyalty.

The Sudden Death and Smooth Transition

Yongzheng’s contingency planning proved prescient when he died suddenly at Yuanmingyuan on October 8, 1735. The circumstances of his death remain somewhat mysterious—official records simply state that he was “indisposed” before his death, while rumors circulated about possible assassination or poisoning. Whatever the cause, his passing was unexpected and created immediate uncertainty.

As recorded in Zhang Tingyu’s chronological biography, when officials rushed to Yuanmingyuan upon hearing of the emperor’s collapse, they found Hongli and Hongzhou already weeping at the bedside. Zhang and Ortai then informed Princes Yunlu and Yunli about the duplicate succession edict stored at Yuanmingyuan and emphasized the urgency of retrieving it to establish the succession.

The head eunuch initially claimed no knowledge of such a document, but Zhang Tingyu provided crucial details: “The document sealed by the late emperor probably isn’t large—it should be wrapped in yellow paper and sealed, with the character ‘封’ written on the back.” Following these instructions, eunuchs located the document, which was then read aloud by candlelight, revealing Hongli as the designated successor.

The official Qing Veritable Records offer a slightly different version, emphasizing the retrieval of the document from the Forbidden City rather than Yuanmingyuan. According to this account, after Yongzheng’s body was transported back to the palace, officials retrieved the original succession document from behind the “Justice and Honor” tablet in the Hall of Heavenly Purity. Hongli reportedly prostrated himself and wept upon seeing his name in the edict before being urged by princes and ministers to cease mourning and assume the throne.

The edict itself praised Hongli’s character, noting his “benevolent nature and filial devotion,” and特别提到 that the Kangxi Emperor had loved him most among all his grandchildren, raising him within the palace and showing him exceptional favor—a important legitimizing reference given the controversies surrounding Yongzheng’s own succession.

Historical Significance and Legacy

The secret succession system established by Yongzheng and tested in Hongli’s ascension represented a significant institutional innovation in Qing governance. It addressed very real problems that had plagued not only the Qing but previous dynasties as well. The traditional system of公开立储 often created parallel courts around crown princes, while the absence of any designation risked succession disputes upon an emperor’s death.

This system would be used for the remainder of the Qing dynasty, with four subsequent emperors were appointed through other means as the dynasty faced extraordinary crises.

The successful implementation of this system reflected the increasing institutionalization of Qing governance during the height of the dynasty’s power. It demonstrated the capacity of the Qing state to develop administrative solutions to political problems that had troubled Chinese rulers for millennia. The careful planning—including the duplicate edict at Yuanmingyuan—showed remarkable foresight and attention to procedural details.

For Hongli, who would reign for sixty years as the Qianlong Emperor , the smoothness of his succession provided a stable foundation for what would become one of the most prosperous and culturally rich periods in Chinese history. His reign saw massive territorial expansion, unprecedented economic growth, and extraordinary cultural achievements including the compilation of the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries, the largest collection of books in Chinese history.

Conclusion: An Enduring Imperial Innovation

The secret succession system pioneered by the Yongzheng Emperor stands as one of the most successful political innovations of the Qing dynasty. By balancing the need for certainty about succession with the maintenance of the reigning emperor’s authority, it addressed a fundamental paradox of absolute monarchy: how to ensure continuity without diminishing the current ruler’s power.

The particular circumstances of Qianlong’s succession—with its duplicate edicts, carefully managed secrecy, and eventual smooth execution—illustrate the sophistication of Qing governance at its height. While the system could not ultimately prevent the decline of the Qing dynasty in the face of 19th-century challenges, it provided remarkable stability during the century of its greatest power and prosperity.

Today, visitors to the Palace Museum in Beijing can still see the “正大光明” tablet in the Hall of Heavenly Purity and imagine the sealed box that once rested behind it, containing the name of the next ruler of the world’s largest empire. The story of how Qianlong came to the throne through this innovative system remains a fascinating chapter in the history of political succession and a testament to the administrative creativity of the Qing dynasty at its zenith.