A Fateful Gathering in Kaohsiung

In 1721, within a stilt house in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, several men gathered around shared cups of shaoxing wine and plates of roast duck. As the alcohol flowed freely, the conversation grew increasingly passionate. One man suddenly rose to his feet, his face flushed with both drink and conviction. Addressing his companions, he declared that all present were Han Chinese—descendants of a civilization with millions of people and advanced culture, yet oppressed by what he called a backward barbarian people from the northeast. He spoke of his depression over this situation, his inability to focus on work, and his burning desire to take action. As a self-proclaimed descendant of the Zhu family, he announced his intention to rebel against Qing rule and asked his brothers-in-arms to join him. The assembled men, all known for their strong character and martial spirit, enthusiastically pledged their support.

This charismatic speaker was none other than Zhu Yigui, who would become famous as the leader of one of the most significant rebellions during the late Kangxi era.

The Duck Farmer With Imperial Ambitions

Zhu Yigui originally hailed from Fujian province but had migrated to Taiwan’s Kaohsiung region, where he established a duck farm. Despite his humble occupation, Zhu possessed a natural talent for building relationships within martial and secret society circles. He maintained a reputation for generosity, invariably slaughtering one of his ducks to feast any friend who visited his home. This habitual hospitality earned him the affectionate nickname “Duck Mother King” among his associates.

Beyond his agricultural pursuits, Zhu consistently claimed descent from the Ming dynasty’s founding emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang. He openly expressed his ambition not merely to remain a duck farmer but to reclaim what he believed was his ancestral right to rule China. This assertion of imperial lineage provided both motivation and legitimacy to his revolutionary aspirations.

The Spark That Ignited Rebellion

The immediate catalyst for rebellion emerged from an incident involving the son of Taiwan’s prefect. When local villagers cut bamboo from mountainside groves—a relatively minor infraction—the official’s son responded with disproportionate brutality, ordering executions that claimed hundreds of lives. This extreme punishment generated widespread public outrage throughout Taiwan, creating fertile ground for anti-government sentiment.

Recognizing this window of opportunity, Zhu Yigui organized the now-historic gathering where he revealed his plans for insurrection. The combination of longstanding ethnic tensions between Han Chinese and Manchu rulers, coupled with recent governmental brutality, created perfect conditions for mobilization.

Historical Context: Kangxi’s Expanding Empire

To understand the environment in which Zhu Yigui’s rebellion emerged, we must examine the broader context of Kangxi’s expansionist policies. In 1683, following Admiral Shi Lang’s defeat of the Zheng regime, Taiwan was incorporated into the Qing Empire, ending decades of separatist rule. This conquest represented just one facet of Kangxi’s ambitious territorial consolidation.

Simultaneously, the Qing Empire engaged in multiple border conflicts with Russia along their northern frontiers. Chinese forces achieved significant victories in these engagements, culminating in the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk—the first equal treaty between China and a European power. This agreement formally delineated the Sino-Russian border and demonstrated Qing China’s growing geopolitical confidence.

In 1691, Outer Mongolia was incorporated into the Qing domain, followed by extensive campaigns against the Dzungar Khanate. Between 1690 and 1697, Kangxi personally led three expeditions against the Dzungars, ultimately bringing Xinjiang and Qinghai under Beijing’s control. By 1720, Tibet too had been incorporated into the expanding empire. These military successes created both pride and strain, as the court simultaneously managed frontier expansion and internal stability.

Rapid Success and Internal Strife

Following their declaration of rebellion, Zhu Yigui’s forces discovered that Qing officials who had previously seemed formidable were in fact poorly prepared for organized resistance. Within just ten days, the rebel army had captured control of Taiwan, an astonishingly rapid victory that demonstrated both popular support for the uprising and weak Qing governance on the island.

With Taiwan under their control, Zhu Yigui proclaimed himself “King Who Revives the Brilliant Dynasty,” explicitly linking his movement to the restoration of Ming rule. This symbolic act reinforced his claim to imperial lineage and positioned the rebellion as legitimate resistance rather than mere insurrection.

The Cracks Begin to Show

The rebellion’s initial success proved fragile, undermined by internal discord. Du Junying, one of Zhu’s key lieutenants, began acting more like a bandit than a revolutionary leader. Emboldened by their military victories, Du dispatched his men to abduct seven young women from rural villages, intending to keep them for his personal pleasure.

When Zhu Yigui learned of these actions, he immediately confronted Du at his encampment. Initially adopting a conciliatory tone, Zhu urged his comrade to release the women, arguing that such behavior undermined their moral standing and political legitimacy. Du, however, refused to comply, dismissing the matter as trivial. This response provoked Zhu’s fury, leading to an ultimatum: release the women or face consequences.

Du Junying ignored the warning, prompting Zhu to dispatch forces to compel compliance through military action. While successful in freeing the captives, this internal conflict significantly weakened the rebellion’s military capacity and unity.

The Fatal Division

Following his defeat, Du Junying retreated south with tens of thousands of troops, effectively splitting the rebellion into competing factions. This division provided the Qing government with precisely the opportunity it needed. Rather than facing a unified resistance, imperial forces could now exploit the rift between Zhu and Du’s factions.

In a devastating blow to the rebellion, Du Junying eventually surrendered to Qing authorities and aligned with them against his former comrades. This betrayal not only provided the government with intelligence and additional manpower but also demoralized the remaining rebel forces.

The Qing Response and Rebellion’s Collapse

Recognizing the threat posed by the rebellion—and particularly concerned about challenges to Manchu legitimacy—the Kangxi court dispatched substantial military forces to Taiwan. These well-trained, properly equipped imperial troops systematically dismantled the rebel resistance. Zhu Yigui’s peasant army, despite initial successes, could not withstand repeated engagements with professional soldiers.

The rebellion’s collapse was accelerated by further betrayals, as other former supporters provided information to Qing authorities in exchange for leniency. Ultimately, Zhu Yigui himself was captured through such treachery, ending his brief reign as the “King Who Revives the Brilliant Dynasty.”

Defiance in Captivity

Even as a prisoner, Zhu Yigui maintained his defiant stance. When a Qing official derisively questioned why a mere duck farmer would dare rebel against the central government, Zhu passionately responded that reclaiming his ancestral heritage could not be considered rebellion. He turned the accusation back on his interrogator, asking how any Han Chinese could willingly serve as lackeys to Manchu rulers. This rhetorical counterattack so enraged the official that he ordered Zhu’s leg broken—a brutal demonstration of Qing authority over the defeated rebel.

A Gruesome End and Historical Legacy

Zhu Yigui was transported to Beijing, where he suffered lingchi—death by a thousand cuts—a punishment reserved for those deemed most threatening to imperial authority. This public execution served as a stark warning to others who might challenge Qing rule.

Despite its ultimate failure, the Zhu Yigui rebellion revealed significant tensions within the expanding Qing Empire. It demonstrated that despite military successes in frontier regions, the government faced ongoing challenges in governing ethnically diverse territories and maintaining legitimacy among Han Chinese subjects.

The Wider Significance of Kneeling Protocols

The rebellion occurred against the backdrop of evolving court protocols that reflected ongoing ethnic tensions within the Qing administration. From the dynasty’s establishment through the early Kangxi period, Han officials—regardless of rank—were required to kneel when addressing Manchu royalty. This humiliating protocol emphasized ethnic hierarchy and Manchu dominance.

A significant shift occurred in 1688 following the death of Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang. When Kangxi assembled princes and officials to discuss funeral arrangements, Manchu nobility sat in ordered circles according to rank while Han academics and officials remained kneeling. This visible inequality prompted discussions about dignity and respect within the administration, though substantive change would come gradually.

Conclusion: The Duck King’s Enduring Symbolism

Zhu Yigui’s rebellion, though ultimately unsuccessful, represents a fascinating chapter in Qing history that illuminates the complex relationships between center and periphery, between ethnic groups, and between imperial ambition and local resistance. His story embodies the persistent Ming loyalist sentiment that continued to challenge Qing legitimacy throughout the dynasty’s early decades.

The rebellion also demonstrates how personal ambition, ethnic identity, and response to governmental misconduct could combine to create powerful revolutionary movements. Zhu’s initial success reveals the fragility of Qing control in frontier regions, while the rebellion’s collapse illustrates the court’s formidable capacity to reassert authority when challenged.

Today, Zhu Yigui remains a symbolic figure in Taiwanese history—sometimes celebrated as a folk hero who resisted oppression, sometimes analyzed as a case study in failed rebellion. His story continues to resonate as historians examine the complex dynamics of empire, ethnicity, and resistance in early modern China.