Introduction: A Reign Under Threat

The early 19th century represented a critical juncture in Qing dynasty history, marked by both external pressures and internal challenges to imperial authority. Against this backdrop of gradual decline, Emperor Jiaqing found himself facing an unprecedented security crisis that would test the very foundations of the imperial system. Between 1803 and 1813, the emperor would survive two separate assassination attempts that revealed vulnerabilities in the supposedly impregnable Forbidden City security apparatus and highlighted growing social discontent within the empire.

These incidents, occurring a decade apart, represented more than mere personal threats to the emperor—they symbolized the weakening grip of the Qing dynasty on a rapidly changing China. The first attempt by a lone kitchen worker and the second by organized religious rebels presented different but equally troubling challenges to imperial authority, forcing the court to confront uncomfortable truths about its relationship with the common people and the effectiveness of its security measures.

The First Attempt: A Kitchen Worker’s Desperate Gambit

### The Day Security Failed

On the twentieth day of the intercalary second month in the eighth year of his reign , Emperor Jiaqing was returning from the Summer Palace at Yuanmingyuan to the Forbidden City through what should have been a perfectly secure route. As the imperial procession approached the Shunzhen Gate, the elaborate security protocols that normally protected the Son of Heaven catastrophically failed. From behind the western wall of the side chamber near the gate, a middle-aged man named Chen De emerged suddenly, brandishing a sharp blade and charging directly toward the emperor’s palanquin.

The scene that followed represented every security official’s worst nightmare. Approximately one hundred guards stationed between the Shenwu and Shunzhen Gates stood frozen in shock and confusion, their training apparently forgotten in the face of this unprecedented breach. The failure of these professional soldiers to respond immediately highlighted serious deficiencies in the imperial guard system and raised questions about the preparedness of those charged with protecting the emperor.

### Heroes in the Crisis

Amid the general paralysis, six individuals demonstrated remarkable courage and presence of mind. The emperor’s nephew, Ding Prince Mian’en; Gurun Efu and Khalkha Prince Lawangdorji; Mongol Kharachin Duke Danbadorji of the Qianqing Gate Guard; and imperial bodyguard Zhaketa’er sprang into action, forming a protective cordon around the emperor’s palanquin while simultaneously engaging the assailant.

The struggle was fierce and immediate. Mian’en had his sleeve pierced by Chen’s blade, while Danbadorji suffered three separate stab wounds during the confrontation. Despite these injuries, the six defenders managed to subdue Chen De through sheer numerical advantage and determination. The emperor was rushed to safety inside the Shunzhen Gate, though close enough to hear the sounds of the struggle—an experience that undoubtedly left him shaken and aware of how narrowly he had escaped harm.

### The Aftermath and Investigation

Following the immediate crisis, a comprehensive investigation commenced under the emperor’s direct orders. Military机密大臣 and the Board of Punishments received instructions to conduct rigorous interrogations, with the circle of investigators expanding the following day to include Manchu and Han grand secretaries, the six board ministers, and eventually officials from the Nine Ministries and censors.

The investigative process followed established protocols for high-profile cases involving the imperial family. Officials employed a combination of questioning and what they termed “guidance” to extract information from the captive. After initial resistance, Chen De eventually provided a statement that would both puzzle and frustrate his interrogators.

The Assassin’s Profile and Motives

### A Life of Struggle and Desperation

Chen De’s background, as revealed through his testimony and subsequent investigations, painted a picture of a man pushed to the brink by personal misfortune and economic hardship. At forty-seven years of age, he came from a family of domestic servants—his father had worked as a manservant and attendant, and Chen had followed in this occupational tradition.

His life had been one of geographical and economic instability. After spending his childhood in Shandong province where his father worked, Chen had attempted to establish himself in the same line of work as an adult. His father’s death disrupted this stability, and unable to find employment in Shandong, he had migrated to Beijing to seek assistance from his cousin sister. With his nephew’s help, he secured work as a cook—a position that offered at least temporary stability.

Tragedy struck again when Chen’s wife passed away, creating both emotional and financial strain that ultimately cost him his employment. The combination of grief and economic desperation appears to have triggered a psychological crisis that would have profound consequences for imperial security.

### The Psychology of Desperation

Chen’s stated motives, while seemingly straightforward, revealed complex psychological dimensions that fascinated and perplexed his interrogators. According to his testimony, unemployment and personal loss had driven him to contemplate suicide. However, he reportedly found the idea of dying unnoticed and unremarked unacceptable—he wanted his death to “make a dramatic impact” and be “understood clearly.”

This psychological state led to what might be considered one of history’s most audacious suicide-by-cop scenarios. Chen apparently reasoned that attacking the emperor would guarantee his immediate execution by guards, achieving both death and notoriety simultaneously. His plan demonstrated both desperate logic and a startling misunderstanding of the consequences of his actions.

The investigation revealed through interviews with his son Chen Lu’er and landlord Huang Wufu that Chen had exhibited unusual behavior in the days leading up to the attack, suggesting possible mental instability. Yet this explanation failed to satisfy officials who expected to find broader conspiracies or political motivations behind such a brazen attack on the emperor.

The Second Attempt: The癸酉 Rebellion

### A Coordinated Assault on the Forbidden City

A decade after Chen De’s solo attempt, Emperor Jiaqing would face an even more serious threat to his rule. On the fifteenth day of the ninth month in the eighteenth year of his reign , organized groups of Tianli Sect followers launched a coordinated attack on the Forbidden City. Dividing into two teams, they stormed the palace through both the Donghua and Xihua Gates.

One contingent managed to fight their way to the gates of the Longzong Palace before being repelled by guards organized by Mianning . This event, occurring in the traditional Chinese calendar year of Guiyou, would become known to history as the “Guiyou Incident” or癸酉之变.

Although Emperor Jiaqing was not physically present during this attack, the psychological impact proved even greater than the earlier attempt. The fact that organized rebels could penetrate the innermost sanctums of imperial power represented what contemporary officials described as “an uprising in the armpit” and “trouble arising behind the screen”—events without precedent in the Han, Tang, Song, or Ming dynasties.

### The Tianli Sect Challenge

The Tianli Sect represented one of many folk religious movements that periodically challenged orthodox authority throughout Chinese history. Like the White Lotus Sect that had plagued previous emperors, these groups often blended religious teachings with millenarian beliefs and social discontent, creating potent movements capable of mobilizing significant numbers of followers against established authority.

Their ability to coordinate an attack on the very heart of imperial power demonstrated both organizational sophistication and the depth of dissatisfaction among certain segments of the population. The fact that they nearly succeeded in penetrating the inner chambers of the palace revealed serious vulnerabilities in the capital’s defense systems and intelligence operations.

Historical Context: The Jiaqing Emperor’s Challenging Reign

### Inheriting a Declining Empire

Emperor Jiaqing ascended the throne in 1796, though he initially ruled under the shadow of his father, the retired Qianlong Emperor, who continued to wield significant influence until his death in 1799. The Qianlong reign, while celebrated for its cultural achievements and territorial expansion, had also planted the seeds of future difficulties through rampant corruption, particularly under the influence of the emperor’s favorite minister, Heshen.

Upon assuming full power, Jiaqing moved quickly to address corruption, executing Heshen and confiscating his enormous wealth. However, reversing the institutional decay that had set in during his father’s later years proved enormously challenging. The emperor faced numerous rebellions, economic difficulties, and the early pressures of Western imperialism that would eventually contribute to the dynasty’s collapse a century later.

### Security in the Late Qing Period

The two assassination attempts against Jiaqing must be understood within the broader context of security challenges facing the Qing dynasty in the early 19th century. The White Lotus Rebellion had demonstrated the military vulnerabilities of the empire, while piracy along the coast and ethnic tensions in various regions further stretched imperial resources.

Within this environment, the fact that both a lone individual and an organized group could penetrate the Forbidden City’s defenses suggested systemic problems in capital security. The imperial guard system, theoretically composed of elite troops, appeared to have grown complacent and ineffective—a microcosm of broader issues within the Qing military establishment.

Investigation and Judicial Response

### Interrogation Methods and Challenges

The investigation into Chen De’s attempt revealed much about Qing judicial procedures in cases of utmost importance. Officials employed a combination of persuasion and pressure, including the use of what was described as “twisting ears and making kneel on chains” when initial questioning proved unsatisfactory.

Despite these measures, Chen maintained his story without significant variation, frustrating investigators who expected to uncover a broader conspiracy. The emperor himself expressed skepticism about the explanation that a unemployed cook would attempt regicide without accomplices or deeper motivation, particularly questioning how Chen had obtained information about the imperial schedule and navigated palace security.

### The Limits of Investigation

Authorities pursued every possible lead, detaining and questioning everyone connected to Chen De, but uncovered little additional information. The investigation highlighted the limitations of judicial procedures when confronted with what appeared to be an act of individual desperation rather than organized conspiracy.

The night-long interrogation sessions eventually left Chen “spiritually defeated and dejected,” yet his account remained consistent. This persistence in the face of intense pressure either testified to the truth of his statements or to remarkable fortitude—qualities that seemed at odds with his background as an ordinary kitchen worker.

Cultural and Political Implications

### The Symbolism of Imperial Vulnerability

In traditional Chinese political philosophy, the emperor served as the crucial link between heaven and earth, his personal safety emblematic of the stability of the entire cosmic order. Attempts on the emperor’s life therefore carried significance far beyond the immediate physical threat—they represented challenges to the fundamental structure of the universe as understood in Confucian thought.

The fact that not one but two attempts occurred during Jiaqing’s reign sent shockwaves through the political establishment and required significant rhetorical work to explain within the framework of imperial ideology. Officials struggled to reconcile these events with the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, which theoretically protected virtuous rulers from harm.

### Public Perception and Imperial Authority

While detailed information about the attempts was naturally restricted within court circles, enough information inevitably leaked to shape public perception of imperial authority. The ability of ordinary individuals to challenge the emperor physically, however unsuccessfully, potentially undermined the aura of invincibility that surrounded the throne.

The court’s response—emphasizing the heroic actions of defenders and the ultimate failure of the attempts—represented an effort to control the narrative and reinforce imperial authority. Nevertheless, these incidents undoubtedly contributed to growing awareness of the dynasty’s vulnerabilities among both elites and commoners.

Legacy and Historical Significance

### Security Reforms and Consequences

In the aftermath of these events, the court undoubtedly reviewed and likely reformed security procedures, though detailed records of specific changes remain scarce in available historical sources. The fact that no further successful attempts occurred during the remainder of Jiaqing’s reign suggests that some improvements were implemented.

The incidents also likely influenced security arrangements for subsequent emperors, contributing to the increasingly isolated and protected existence of later Qing rulers. This physical separation from ordinary subjects may have further weakened the dynasty’s connection to the population it governed, contributing to its eventual downfall.

### Historical Interpretation

Modern historians view these assassination attempts through various interpretive lenses. Some emphasize them as symptoms of the gradual decline of Qing authority and effectiveness. Others focus on what they reveal about social conditions and the desperation of ordinary people during this period. Still others analyze the bureaucratic and judicial response as examples of Qing governance under pressure.

What remains clear is that these events, particularly the癸酉 Rebellion, represented significant milestones in the weakening of imperial authority. They demonstrated that challenges to the throne could emerge from unexpected quarters and that even the most sacred spaces were not immune to violation.

Conclusion: The Emperor Who Survived

Emperor Jiaqing’s reign, often overshadowed by those of his more famous father , represents a critical transitional period in Qing history. The two assassination attempts he survived illustrate in dramatic fashion the challenges facing the dynasty as it entered its final century.

These incidents reveal the complex interplay between individual desperation and organized opposition, between security failures and heroic responses, between imperial power and its limitations. They remind us that history is shaped not only by grand movements and famous figures, but also by ordinary individuals like Chen De whose actions, however motivated, briefly intersect with the highest levels of power and leave an indelible mark on the historical record.

The survival of Emperor Jiaqing against these threats allowed the dynasty to continue for another century, but the vulnerabilities exposed during his reign would eventually contribute to its collapse. The assassination attempts of 1803 and 1813 thus stand as poignant symbols of a dynasty at the crossroads, facing challenges from within and without that would ultimately prove insurmountable.