A Young Man’s Official Mission

In the third year of the Yuanshuo era , a twenty-year-old Sima Qian embarked on an extraordinary journey across the Han Empire. Though not yet holding an official government position, this young man traveled with imperial authorization, tasked with collecting historical records and documents scattered throughout the realm. The Han government provided him with transportation, an essential support that made this extensive travel possible.

For an individual, such a journey would have represented a prohibitive expense, but for the Han imperial court, it was a negligible investment. Emperor Wu of Han was known for his generous patronage, whether rewarding battle-hardened soldiers or supporting mystical practitioners. From a broader historical perspective, providing Sima Qian with these resources proved to be one of the most valuable investments in Chinese historiography.

The Route of a Lifetime

In his later work Records of the Grand Historian, Sima Qian provided a concise account of his travels: At twenty, I traveled south to the Jiang and Huai rivers, ascended Kuaiji Mountain, explored the cave of Yu, glimpsed the Nine Doubtful Mountains, floated upon the Yuan and Xiang rivers. I crossed north over the Wen and Si rivers, discussed scholarship in the capitals of Qi and Lu, observed the surviving traditions of Confucius, practiced archery ceremonies in Zou and Yi, encountered hardship in Pi, Xue, and Pengcheng, and passed through Liang and Chu on my return.

This description, while evocative, raises several interesting questions for modern historians. First, the sequence presented cannot represent his actual itinerary, as traveling from Chang’an to Jiangsu and Zhejiang, then to Hunan, and subsequently to Shandong would have been geographically illogical. Only the final leg from Shandong through Henan back to Shaanxi follows a reasonable route.

Second, Sima Qian never specified the duration of his journey. Covering nearly half of the Han Empire’s territory under ancient transportation conditions would have required considerable time. Since this was not mere tourism but serious historical research involving examination of records and investigation of local customs, the expedition likely lasted significantly longer than a brief excursion. Scholars estimate the journey took anywhere from over a year to several years.

In Search of Ancient Sages

Throughout his travels, Sima Qian demonstrated particular interest in two categories of historical figures: the legendary sage kings of antiquity and the philosophical masters of the Spring and Autumn period. Specifically, he sought connections with Shun, Yu, and Confucius, visiting sites associated with their lives and legacies.

His mention of glimpsing the Nine Doubtful Mountains and floating upon the Yuan and Xiang rivers references his pilgrimage to locations connected with the legendary Emperor Shun. These same landscapes featured prominently in the verses of Chu Ci, naturally evoking associations with another significant figure: Qu Yuan.

The Enigma of Qu Yuan

The historical Qu Yuan presents numerous mysteries for modern historians. His name appears nowhere in extant Warring States period documents, leaving questions about Sima Qian’s sources when he composed the biography of this poetic minister. What remains certain is Sima Qian’s profound admiration for Qu Yuan. Visiting the site where Qu Yuan was said to have drowned himself in the Miluo River, Sima Qian wrote that he could not refrain from shedding tears, imagining what kind of man he had been.

In Sima Qian’s interpretation, Qu Yuan embodied intense loyalty and devotion to his ruler, sentiments that resonated deeply with the young historian. Sima Qian later described his own early life as being devoted to seeking the affection and approval of his sovereign. While modern readers might not associate this description with Sima Qian’s later courageous stance against imperial authority, it perfectly captures the essence of Qu Yuan, who frequently used floral and feminine metaphors to express his political devotion.

Sima Qian’s criticism of later Chu poets like Song Yu, Tang Le, and Jing Cha noted that while they imitated Qu Yuan’s elegant style, none dared to offer straightforward admonition to their rulers. For the young Sima Qian, the courage to confront erring monarchs with honest counsel represented the highest form of moral bravery. At this stage in his life, he could not yet imagine what such courage would eventually cost him.

Assessing the Four Lords of the Warring States

As an admirer of knight-errantry and scholarly patronage, Sima Qian naturally focused attention on the Four Lords of the Warring States period, noblemen famous for hosting retainers and supporting men of talent.

Among these figures, Lord Chunshen of Chu appears to have been Sima Qian’s least favorite. The biography of Lord Chunshen in Records of the Grand Historian contains numerous inconsistencies and even fantastical elements. While traveling through Chu territory, Sima Qian visited Lord Chunshen’s former fiefdom and offered a terse evaluation: His palaces were indeed magnificent! Since Chu was considered economically underdeveloped compared to other regions, Lord Chunshen’s extravagant architecture likely stood in stark contrast to its surroundings, representing in Sima Qian’s view the cruel exploitation of the local population.

In Xue , Sima Qian experienced significant hardship or danger, though he never specified the nature of this trouble. The incident left him with a profoundly negative impression of the region, whose customs he found deplorable compared to the neighboring homeland of Confucius and Mencius. Upon inquiry, locals informed him that Lord Mengchang had attracted thousands of knight-errants and questionable characters to Xue—reportedly over sixty thousand households of them. Sima Qian wryly observed that Lord Mengchang’s reputation for enjoying the company of guests was indeed well-deserved, clearly implying that most of these retainers were disreputable characters.

Lord Pingyuan of Zhao resided in Handan, which Sima Qian did not visit on this journey. He later described Lord Pingyuan as an elegant young master in a corrupt age, but followed this poetic praise with criticism of his shortsightedness and poor judgment, suggesting limited admiration for this figure as well.

Without question, Sima Qian held Lord Xinling of Wei in highest esteem among the four lords, even titling his biography specifically as The Lord of Xinling rather than grouping him with the others. This special regard stemmed from Lord Xinling’s genuine humility and his practice of judging men by their merit rather than their social status.

The Historian as Investigator

Sima Qian’s methodology during his travels established new standards for historical research. Rather than relying solely on written records, he engaged directly with physical locations, material remains, and oral traditions. At Confucius’ hometown in Qufu, he examined the master’s personal artifacts, including his carriage, clothing, and ritual vessels, experiencing profound reverence for the philosophical tradition that would deeply influence his own historical philosophy.

His visit to the cave traditionally associated with Yu the Great demonstrated his commitment to investigating legendary sites firsthand. While modern archaeology might question the historical validity of such locations, for Sima Qian they represented tangible connections to China’s cultural origins.

Throughout his journey, Sima Qian collected not only official documents but also folk stories, local traditions, and eyewitness accounts. This comprehensive approach to source material would later distinguish his historical writing from more bureaucratic chronicles.

The Transformation of a Historian

This extensive journey fundamentally transformed Sima Qian from a promising young scholar into China’s greatest historian. The firsthand knowledge gained through travel provided him with geographical understanding impossible to acquire through texts alone. His observations of regional variations in custom, economy, and governance gave him unique insight into the diverse reality of the Han Empire beneath its unified political surface.

Perhaps most importantly, his encounters with the physical remnants of history and the living memories of historical figures gave his subsequent writing an immediacy and vitality that would characterize his masterpiece. The emotional connections he formed with figures like Qu Yuan foreshadowed the passionate engagement that would distinguish his historical narratives from mere chronicles.

Legacy of the Journey

The impact of Sima Qian’s travels extends far beyond his personal development. Records of the Grand Historian, which owes much of its richness to this expedition, established the model for Chinese official history for two millennia. His combination of archival research with field investigation created a methodology that would influence historical practice long after his death.

The geographical and cultural knowledge he gathered informed not only his historical writing but also contributed to the Han Empire’s understanding of its own territory. His observations about regional characteristics and historical sites provided valuable information for both administrators and scholars.

Most significantly, Sima Qian’s journey represents an early example of what would now be called cultural history. His attention to customs, legends, and material culture, in addition to political events, expanded the scope of historical writing and established a tradition of comprehensive cultural recording that would characterize the best of Chinese historiography.

Conclusion

Sima Qian’s youthful expedition across the Han Empire stands as a landmark event in the history of historical writing. Supported by imperial resources but driven by personal curiosity and scholarly dedication, this journey enabled the creation of China’s first comprehensive historical record. The firsthand knowledge, emotional connections, and broad perspective gained through travel informed Sima Qian’s masterpiece and established standards for historical practice that would endure for centuries. The investment in a young historian’s education through travel yielded returns far exceeding its cost, enriching not only Chinese but world historiography with one of its most enduring works.