Introduction: The Challenge of Reading Boyi and Shuqi’s Biography

Among the 130 chapters of Sima Qian’s monumental work, Records of the Grand Historian , the biography of Boyi and Shuqi stands out as one of the most difficult for readers to grasp. This is not merely a matter of literary style, but also of the profound philosophical and historiographical questions it raises. Despite its challenging nature, Sima Qian chose to place this biography as the very first in his series of biographies, signaling its special importance in understanding his historical vision.

What makes the Boyi and Shuqi biography so complex? Why does it open and close with philosophical discourse rather than straightforward narrative? To answer these questions, we must delve into the historical context, Sima Qian’s intellectual background, and the intricate relationship between history, morality, and political power reflected in this text.

Sima Qian’s Historiographical Approach: Narrative and Judgment

Sima Qian is renowned for his masterful blending of vivid biographical narrative with reflective commentary. In most biographies within Records of the Grand Historian, he follows a pattern: first, he offers a detailed account of a person’s life, key decisions, and turning points, allowing readers to form an impression; then, at the end, he provides his own historical judgment or moral evaluation in a section often introduced by “The Grand Historian says” .

However, the biography of Boyi and Shuqi defies this norm by beginning and ending with direct philosophical reflections rather than a conventional narrative structure. The portrayal of Boyi and Shuqi themselves is unusually brief, almost secondary to the broader issues Sima Qian seeks to address. This deviation invites us to consider that the biography is less about the individuals and more about the challenges of historical evaluation itself.

The Focus Beyond Individuals: The Ethics of Historical Judgment

The central question Sima Qian grapples with in the Boyi and Shuqi chapter is whether there exists a supreme standard or principle by which history ought to judge figures of the past. He probes the tension between popular, conventional moral standards and the historian’s more nuanced, sometimes conflicting, perspective.

In this context, Boyi and Shuqi symbolize moral idealism and unwavering integrity but also raise questions about the practical implications of such ideals in governance and leadership. Their story serves as a springboard for Sima Qian to explore how history should weigh personal virtue against political realities.

The Confucian Framework and the Authority of the Six Classics

Sima Qian’s philosophical foundation is deeply rooted in Confucianism, shaped by his own intellectual experiences and the political climate of the Han dynasty. His father, Sima Tan, held Daoist sympathies, while Sima Qian himself was influenced by the Confucian revival under Emperor Wu of Han, and studied under the prominent Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu.

In the biography’s opening, Sima Qian emphasizes the importance of the Six Classics , the canonical Confucian texts—especially the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents—as the ultimate yardstick for evaluating historical events and moral questions. These texts, dating back to the Western Zhou period, provide a standard against which past actions and decisions can be judged.

This appeal to classical authority reflects a crucial historiographical principle: when faced with conflicting accounts or moral dilemmas, historians should return to the established wisdom embedded in the Confucian tradition to discern truth and ethical guidance.

The Mandate of Heaven and the Transfer of Political Power

One of the key historical narratives Sima Qian invokes is the legendary transition of power from the sage-king Yao to Shun, and from Shun to Yu the Great, founder of the Xia dynasty. According to the Book of Documents, this transfer was not arbitrary or hereditary but involved a rigorous process of recommendation, testing, and observation by tribal leaders and officials to ensure that only the most capable and virtuous ascended to rulership.

This process underscores the gravity and difficulty of political succession: the mandate to govern the people is a sacred trust and cannot be handed over lightly or without thorough scrutiny. The ruler’s legitimacy hinges on their proven ability to serve the welfare of the people effectively.

The Paradox of Xu You and the Refusal of Power

Sima Qian then introduces a paradoxical figure: Xu You, who famously refused the throne offered by Yao. Xu You’s rejection was not out of ambition or fear but from a profound sense of unworthiness and moral purity—he considered even being offered power a stain on his integrity. The anecdote that he washed his ears in the river to cleanse himself of hearing the offer of rulership illustrates the extreme idealism and asceticism he embodied.

This refusal of power challenges conventional notions of leadership and success. It raises difficult questions about the nature of political responsibility and personal virtue. If the highest moral ideal is to reject worldly power altogether, how can society ensure orderly governance? Conversely, if power is accepted, does this necessarily entail compromise or moral failing?

Similar Cases in Xia Dynasty: Bian Sui and Wu Guang

The biography further cites similar cases from the Xia dynasty, where figures like Bian Sui and Wu Guang, also chosen as successors, fled their responsibilities instead of embracing rulership. These accounts reinforce a recurring theme: that the acceptance of political authority can be fraught with ambivalence, resistance, or shame.

For Sima Qian, these stories are not simply historical curiosities but profound illustrations of the dilemmas leaders face and historians must reckon with when assessing past actors. They embody the tension between ideal virtue and practical governance.

The Visit to Mount Ji: A Tangible Connection to History

In a personal reflection, Sima Qian recounts his own journey to Mount Ji, a place associated with Xu You’s legendary tomb. This pilgrimage underscores the intimate relationship between history, memory, and geography. By physically connecting with the sites of historical memory, Sima Qian demonstrates his commitment to honoring and understanding the past in its full complexity.

This also reflects the historian’s role as custodian of cultural heritage, tasked not only with recording events but with interpreting their deeper significance for future generations.

The Legacy of Boyi and Shuqi’s Biography: History as Moral Inquiry

Ultimately, the biography of Boyi and Shuqi is not just a historical account but a philosophical meditation on history itself. It challenges readers to consider how history should be written and judged, particularly when confronting figures whose moral choices defy easy categorization.

Sima Qian’s decision to place this challenging text at the forefront of his biographies signals his belief that understanding the principles behind historical evaluation is foundational to appreciating the entire work. The biography invites us to contemplate the complex interplay between morality, political authority, and historical narrative.

Conclusion: The Enduring Relevance of Sima Qian’s Historical Vision

The Boyi and Shuqi biography encapsulates the depth and nuance of Sima Qian’s historiographical philosophy, where history is not merely a chronicle of events but an ethical dialogue between past and present. It highlights the responsibility of the historian to balance factual accuracy with moral reflection, and to acknowledge the ambiguities inherent in human actions.

In a modern context, this biography encourages us to question simplistic judgments about historical figures and to appreciate the rigorous standards demanded by just leadership and historical truth. Through this lens, Sima Qian’s work remains a timeless exploration of the human condition and the enduring quest for meaning in history.