The Spanish-American War of 1898 marked a significant turning point in both American and global history. Although the conflict officially began in the Philippines, where the first battles took place, it was the dramatic confrontations in Cuba that ultimately decided the war’s outcome. The war propelled the United States onto the world stage as an emerging imperial power and reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the Caribbean and the Pacific. Among the many military units that fought, the Rough Riders—an eclectic volunteer cavalry regiment—captured the public’s imagination and played a pivotal role in securing American victory. This article explores the key battles in Cuba, the strategic and political context of the war, and the enduring legacy of this conflict.

The Origins and Global Context of the Spanish-American War

To understand the significance of the battles in Cuba and the Philippines, it is important to grasp the broader causes of the Spanish-American War. By the late 19th century, Spain’s once vast empire had diminished considerably, retaining only a few colonies, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. Cuban insurgents had been waging a protracted struggle for independence since 1895, drawing international attention and sympathy, especially in the United States.

American interests in Cuba were both humanitarian and economic. The U.S. had significant investments in the island’s sugar plantations and was concerned about instability that could threaten trade. Moreover, the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor in February 1898, under mysterious circumstances, inflamed public opinion and pushed the U.S. government toward war.

While the war officially began with engagements in the Philippines, where Commodore George Dewey’s fleet decisively defeated the Spanish at Manila Bay, it was the campaign in Cuba that would capture the attention of the American public and the press. The battles fought on Cuban soil were dramatic and symbolized American resolve and emerging military prowess.

The American Military Expedition to Cuba

The U.S. military mobilized approximately 17,000 troops, many of whom were volunteers, to participate in the Cuban campaign. The first group of soldiers arrived in Cuba on June 10, 1898, landing at Guantanamo Bay—a strategic harbor on the southeastern coast of the island. A second wave of troops followed on June 22, coming ashore at the nearby town of Daiquiri. From these landing points, American forces planned a march toward Santiago de Cuba, a vital Spanish stronghold on the southern coast.

The terrain in Cuba posed a significant challenge. The island’s lush, tropical environment, with dense forests and rugged hills, was unfamiliar to the American soldiers, many of whom had little experience fighting in foreign lands. Additionally, the Spanish defenders were believed to be well-prepared, with an estimated 150,000 regular soldiers and 40,000 local volunteers ready to resist the invasion.

The Battle of Las Guasimas: The First Major Engagement

One of the earliest and most significant confrontations in Cuba was the Battle of Las Guasimas, which took place shortly after the arrival of U.S. troops. Upon landing at Daiquiri, American commanders initially ordered the troops to remain on the beach, exercising caution due to reports of a large Spanish force entrenched nearby.

Among the first American commanders to lead troops in this battle was Major General Joseph Wheeler. Wheeler brought to the conflict a wealth of military experience—not from the U.S. Army but as a former Confederate cavalry officer during the American Civil War. His leadership and familiarity with mounted warfare were invaluable in the rough Cuban terrain.

The battle itself was a clash marked by confusion and fierce skirmishes. The Spanish forces used guerrilla tactics and the island’s difficult landscape to their advantage, engaging American troops with a combination of direct fire and ambushes. Despite being outnumbered and unfamiliar with the environment, the American forces managed to hold their ground, demonstrating resilience and adaptability.

The Battle of Las Guasimas was not a decisive victory but rather a prelude to the larger and more consequential encounters that lay ahead. It revealed the challenges of fighting in Cuba and underscored the need for coordination and effective leadership.

The Rough Riders and the Battle of San Juan Hill

Perhaps the most famous episode of the Cuban campaign—and indeed of the entire Spanish-American War—was the charge of the Rough Riders during the Battle of San Juan Hill in July 1898. Officially known as the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry, the Rough Riders were a unique and colorful regiment composed of cowboys, miners, law enforcement officers, Native Americans, Ivy League athletes, and other volunteers.

Led by Theodore Roosevelt, then Assistant Secretary of the Navy and later the 26th President of the United States, the Rough Riders embodied the spirit of American rugged individualism and patriotism. Their daring charge up the steep slopes of San Juan Hill against well-entrenched Spanish defenders was widely publicized by the press and became a defining moment in the war.

The Battle of San Juan Hill was part of a larger effort to capture Santiago de Cuba, which was critical for controlling the southern coast of the island. The success of the Rough Riders and other American units forced the Spanish forces into retreat and eventually led to the fall of Santiago.

The Siege and Fall of Santiago de Cuba

Following the battles around the hills and ridges near Santiago, American forces laid siege to the city itself. The Spanish defenders, cut off and outnumbered, faced dwindling supplies and low morale. The siege culminated in the surrender of Santiago de Cuba in early July 1898, effectively ending major hostilities on the island.

The fall of Santiago was a strategic and symbolic victory for the United States. It signaled the collapse of Spanish colonial power in Cuba and paved the way for American occupation and influence. The victory also boosted American national pride and validated the country’s new role as a global military power.

The Aftermath: Treaty and Legacy

The Spanish-American War formally ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in December 1898. Under the treaty’s terms, Spain relinquished control of Cuba, which became a U.S. protectorate until gaining formal independence in 1902. Spain also ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States, marking the emergence of the U.S. as an imperial power with overseas territories.

The war had profound implications for all parties involved. For the United States, it was a coming-of-age moment, demonstrating the country’s military capabilities and its willingness to engage in international affairs. The war also sparked debates about imperialism and the nation’s role in the world—discussions that continue to resonate to this day.

For Cuba, the war ended centuries of Spanish colonial rule but ushered in a new era of American influence and intervention, which shaped the island’s political trajectory throughout the 20th century.

Cultural Impact and Media Coverage

The Spanish-American War was one of the first conflicts to be extensively covered by modern mass media. Newspapers and magazines of the time, practicing what came to be called “yellow journalism,” sensationalized the war and the exploits of units like the Rough Riders. The public’s fascination with the war helped to galvanize support for the conflict and immortalized figures such as Theodore Roosevelt.

This media attention not only influenced public perception but also contributed to the mythologizing of the war, blending fact and legend in the American consciousness. The Rough Riders, in particular, became symbols of bravery and adventure, inspiring countless books, films, and other cultural works in the decades that followed.

Conclusion: The Spanish-American War as a Turning Point

The battles in Cuba, from the initial landing at Daiquiri to the decisive charge up San Juan Hill and the subsequent fall of Santiago, were central to the outcome of the Spanish-American War. These engagements showcased American determination, adaptability, and burgeoning military strength. The war’s conclusion marked the end of Spain’s colonial empire in the Americas and the Pacific and the rise of the United States as a new imperial power.

More than a century later, the Spanish-American War remains a fascinating chapter in world history, illustrating the complexities of war, media influence, and the shifting dynamics of global power. The Rough Riders and the battles they fought continue to capture the imagination, serving as enduring symbols of a transformative era.