The story of Cambyses II, the Persian king who ruled from 530 to 522 BC, is one of ambition, cruelty, and tragic downfall. His reign marked a pivotal moment in the history of the Persian Empire, bridging the glorious conquests of his father Cyrus the Great and the consolidation of power under Darius the Great. Cambyses’ death, shrouded in mystery and controversy, offers a fascinating glimpse into the complexities of ancient Persian politics, royal family dynamics, and imperial expansion. This article explores the final years of Cambyses’ reign, examining his notorious actions, his expedition to Egypt, the tense relationship with his brother, and the events leading to his untimely demise.

Background: The Rise of Cambyses II and the Persian Empire

Cambyses II was the son of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, which had rapidly expanded to become one of the largest empires in history. Upon Cyrus’ death in 530 BC, Cambyses inherited a vast empire stretching from the Indus Valley in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west. His accession marked a continuation of Persian imperial ambitions, but his reign also revealed a darker, more volatile side of Persian kingship.

While Cyrus had been celebrated for his relatively tolerant and strategic rule, Cambyses quickly gained a reputation for cruelty and erratic behavior. His most famous military achievement was the conquest of Egypt in 525 BC, which brought the rich and culturally significant Nile Valley under Persian control. However, the manner in which Cambyses ruled Egypt and his personal life generated scandal and unrest, both within the empire and among his own family.

The Scandal of Incest: Cambyses and His Sisters

One of the most infamous aspects of Cambyses’ personal life was his marriage to two of his own sisters, including one named Atossa. Atossa herself was a notable historical figure, being the daughter of Cyrus the Great and later the wife of Darius I, as well as the mother of Xerxes I — three of the most powerful monarchs in Persian history.

Cambyses’ decision to marry his sisters was shocking, even by ancient standards. Such unions were considered taboo in many cultures, including Persia, where natural instincts and social norms typically prevented such acts. According to historical accounts, Cambyses initially hesitated and sought legal advice from Persian judges about the legitimacy of marrying his own sisters. However, this consultation was merely a formality; Cambyses had already decided to proceed and wanted the judges to provide a legal justification to quell public disgust.

The judges, aware of the king’s expectations, responded that although no specific laws permitted a man to marry his sister, the king had the authority to do whatever he deemed fit. This tacit approval allowed Cambyses to marry Atossa and another sister, cementing his notorious reputation.

Atossa’s perspective on this incestuous marriage remains unknown, but historical narratives suggest she was gentle and kind — a stark contrast to her brutal brother. It is likely that she was coerced into the marriage under Cambyses’ overwhelming authority.

Brotherly Rivalry: Cambyses and Smerdis

Cambyses’ relationship with his younger brother Smerdis was fraught with jealousy and distrust. Although younger, Smerdis was stronger and more accomplished in battle than Cambyses, which fueled the king’s paranoia. Fearing that Smerdis might usurp the throne during his absence on military campaigns, Cambyses was unwilling to leave him in Persia as regent.

Instead of appointing Smerdis as regent, Cambyses took him along on his Egyptian expedition. He entrusted the administration of Persia to two officials known as the Magi priests, one named Patizeithes and the other also named Smerdis — a coincidence that would later prove catastrophic.

Cambyses’ jealousy did not abate during the campaign. Smerdis’ success and popularity among the troops heightened Cambyses’ fears of a coup. After conquering Egypt, Cambyses planned a new campaign against the kingdom of Ethiopia, known for its fierce warriors. However, before launching this expedition, he decided to send Smerdis back to Persia, perhaps to remove him from the military sphere and keep a closer eye on him politically.

The Egyptian Campaign and Intelligence Gathering

Cambyses’ conquest of Egypt was a significant military achievement. However, his ambitions extended beyond Egypt to Ethiopia, a region shrouded in mystery and considered difficult to conquer due to its geography and the strength of its people.

To prepare for the Ethiopian campaign, Cambyses sought intelligence about the land and its military capabilities. Ethiopia’s customs, language, and lifestyle were markedly different from those in Persia or Egypt, rendering Persian troops unfamiliar with the region.

Near the upper Nile, close to the famous cataracts , known for its fertile soil and inhabited by a semi-nomadic tribe called the Iktyophagi, meaning “fish eaters” in Greek. These people were expert fishermen and had fleets of boats for fishing expeditions.

Cambyses devised a plan to gather information by sending envoys to the Iktyophagi to learn the route to Ethiopia. He also appointed a messenger fluent in the Ethiopian language to deliver gifts and establish diplomatic contact with the Ethiopian king. The gifts included vibrant clothing, gold necklaces, gold bracelets, and other precious items, as well as toys and a large bottle of fine wine — all intended to ingratiate the Ethiopian ruler and mask Persian intentions.

The Mysterious Death of Cambyses

Cambyses’ death in 522 BC remains a subject of debate and intrigue. Some sources suggest he died from an accidental self-inflicted wound during the Ethiopian campaign, while others hint at assassination or suicide driven by his growing paranoia and isolation.

The political vacuum caused by Cambyses’ death led to a crisis in the Persian Empire. The two Magi priests left in charge of Persia were not mere administrators; they were powerful religious figures with their own agendas. The coincidence of one Magus sharing the name Smerdis with Cambyses’ brother added to the confusion and conspiracy theories surrounding the succession.

Shortly after Cambyses’ death, a figure claiming to be Smerdis appeared in Persia, but this turned out to be an impostor, leading to what is known as the “False Smerdis” episode. This impostor seized the throne, only to be overthrown by Darius I, who would stabilize the empire and become one of its most famous rulers.

Cultural and Historical Impact

Cambyses’ reign and death illustrate the challenges of maintaining a vast empire through military conquest and complex family politics. His brutal methods and personal scandals contrasted sharply with the relatively enlightened governance of his father and successor.

The marriage to his sisters shocked contemporaries and tarnished the royal image, highlighting the tension between royal privilege and societal norms. Cambyses’ paranoia about his brother revealed the fragility of royal authority and the dangers inherent in dynastic succession.

Moreover, the Persian expansion into Egypt under Cambyses represented a turning point in the empire’s history, integrating one of the ancient world’s oldest civilizations into Persian dominion. This conquest influenced Persian administration, religion, and cultural exchange.

The mysterious circumstances of Cambyses’ death and the subsequent political upheaval paved the way for Darius I’s rise, whose reign would mark the zenith of the Achaemenid Empire.

Conclusion: The End of a Controversial King

Cambyses II remains one of the most enigmatic figures of ancient Persia. His reign encapsulated both the grandeur and peril of imperial power — military triumphs shadowed by personal excesses and political instability. His death, whether accidental or orchestrated, ended a turbulent chapter in Persian history but set the stage for the empire’s greatest achievements under Darius and Xerxes.

As history continues to grapple with the legacy of Cambyses, his story serves as a timeless reminder of the human vulnerabilities behind the facade of kingship and the enduring complexities of empire-building in the ancient world.