The late Eastern Han dynasty was a period marked by political intrigue, military upheaval, and social complexities that shaped the fate of the empire. At the heart of this turbulent era was Liu Hong, an emperor whose youth was deeply influenced by the forces converging around him—from powerful generals returning victorious from the frontiers to the ambitions of palace figures and the volatile relations between ethnic groups on the empire’s borders. This article explores the formative years of Liu Hong, focusing on the military campaigns near the old capital Chang’an, the complex ethnic composition of frontier armies, and the intricate court politics involving influential figures such as the powerful general Duan Jiong and the ambitious Empress Dowager Dong.

The Return of a Powerful Army to Chang’an: Context and Composition

In the spring of the third year of Jianning , a massive army appeared near the old capital of Chang’an, signaling a significant military and political event. This army was not a typical Han force but a heterogeneous mass composed of over 50,000 infantry and cavalry units labeled as “Qin and Hu,” alongside more than 10,000 captured Qiang warriors and even famed “thousand-li sweat blood horses,” renowned for their incredible endurance and speed.

Understanding this army’s composition requires delving into the ethnic tensions and alliances on the northwest frontier of the Han empire. During this period, distinctions between “Qin” and “Hu” were not sharply drawn. The term “Qin” referred to Han Chinese or those assimilated along the Han borderlands, often indistinguishable from “Hu”—a broad label encompassing various nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes often employed as mercenaries. This blurred ethnic identity reflected centuries of intermarriage and migration, making the frontier a melting pot rather than a battleground of rigid ethnic antagonisms.

The presence of such a large and ethnically mixed force near Chang’an was emblematic of the military realities of the late Han dynasty. The frontier had been a hotbed of conflict, especially between the Han and Qiang peoples, for over a century, leading to the gradual militarization and integration of various tribal groups into the Han military structure. The army’s arrival at Chang’an was both a show of strength and a political statement, as the troops were there to present captives and prized horses to the court—a ritual symbolizing military success and loyalty.

General Duan Jiong: From Battlefield Commander to Court Official

At the helm of this formidable army was General Duan Jiong, titled Marquis of Xinfeng County. His leadership was instrumental in guiding the force from the western front lines all the way to the imperial capital, a journey that underscored both his military prowess and political acumen. Upon arrival, Duan Jiong was greeted with official honors by the Grand Herald and continued to the imperial city of Luoyang, where he was appointed Gentleman Attendant, signaling his transition from military commander to influential court official.

Duan Jiong’s career trajectory was typical of successful frontier generals in the late Han period. After years of campaigning, it was customary for such leaders to retire from active military service and assume bureaucratic positions within the palace. This practice served multiple purposes: it rewarded military achievements, ensured loyalty by binding generals to the court, and prevented potential rebellions from powerful frontier commanders by keeping them under imperial supervision.

Interestingly, the composition of Duan Jiong’s army, a blend of “Qin and Hu” troops, was not a cause for alarm among the central government or local officials along the route. This acceptance reflected a long-standing familiarity with the military realities of the northwest, where frontier soldiers—often viewed as fierce and unruly—were nonetheless integrated into the empire’s defense. The local population, though wary, was confident that such forces would not instigate rebellion, partly because of established protocols and partly due to a sense of ethnic and cultural distancing.

The Political Significance of “Qin and Hu” Troops in Imperial Strategy

The terminology “Qin and Hu” used to describe the frontier forces is illustrative of broader ethnic and military dynamics during the late Han dynasty. While initially, “Qin” referred to Han Chinese settlers and “Hu” to non-Han nomadic tribes, this dichotomy became more pronounced during the wars and chaos that engulfed China from the late Han through the Western Jin period. By then, “Qin and Hu” represented opposing categories of identity and allegiance, often invoked in poetry and military discourse to signify the clash between civilization and barbarism.

One notable figure who leveraged troops identified as “Qin Hu” was Dong Zhuo, a warlord who rose to power in the late 180s CE. Historical records indicate that Dong Zhuo’s army comprised “Huangzhong Yi Cong and Qin Hu soldiers,” units recruited from the northwest, known for their fierce combat abilities. Dong Zhuo’s control over these troops allowed him to dominate the imperial court for several years, underscoring the importance of frontier forces in the power struggles of the capital.

The acceptance of “Qin Hu” soldiers in the capital and among local populations also reveals a certain complacency or underestimation of their political potential. Despite their martial prowess and ethnic distinctiveness, these troops were often relegated to border defense roles or incorporated into the palace guard, their presence tolerated but carefully monitored.

Duan Jiong’s Influence and the Role of Court Eunuchs

After his return to the capital, Duan Jiong’s influence extended beyond the battlefield. He held significant official posts such as Governor of Henan and Chief Censor, positions that granted him substantial power over civil administration and oversight of other officials. His close alliance with the powerful eunuch Wang Fu further cemented his position within the palace’s intricate power network.

Duan Jiong’s personality was a mix of military skill and ruthless determination. While admired for his care toward wounded soldiers and battlefield expertise, he was also known for his vindictiveness and intolerance of opposition. As Chief Censor, a role akin to imperial inspector with authority to supervise and discipline officials, Duan Jiong wielded his power with an iron fist, intimidating even high-ranking ministers.

His presence in the court likely had a significant impact on the young emperor Liu Hong, who ascended the throne amid these political tensions. The emperor’s youth and inexperience rendered him vulnerable to the influences of strong-willed courtiers like Duan Jiong and powerful eunuchs, shaping his reign’s early character.

Empress Dowager Dong: Ambition, Influence, and Controversy

Liu Hong’s mother, Empress Dowager Dong, was a figure marked by ambition and controversy. Originally the wife of a minor noble from the Riverian branch of the royal family, her background was modest compared to the aristocratic elite of Luoyang. Her rise to power as empress dowager brought her into direct contact with the highest echelons of imperial politics.

Historical sources often depict Empress Dowager Dong as greedy and overbearing—a characterization that modern historians urge caution in accepting at face value. Scholars like Yang Liansheng have highlighted the role of women in commerce and household management during the Eastern Han period, suggesting that Empress Dowager Dong’s reputed avarice may partly reflect contemporary gender norms and the disdain of elite courtiers toward her relatively humble origins.

Her management of the royal household finances and her assertive pursuit of power made her a controversial figure at court. Her actions drew the ire of influential eunuchs and officials, who viewed her as a threat to their own positions. Moreover, she was manipulated by Cao Jie, a palace eunuch who installed her as a puppet rivaling the earlier empress Dou Miao. This maneuvering further isolated her and led to conflicts with other power centers within the court.

The Downfall of Dong Chong and Court Intrigue

Approximately six months after Duan Jiong’s return to the capital, a dramatic incident unfolded involving Dong Chong, Empress Dowager Dong’s influential brother and commander of the imperial guards. Charged with forging the empress dowager’s orders, Dong Chong was arrested and died in prison, an event that highlighted the precarious nature of power within the imperial palace.

This episode illustrates the volatile court environment in which Liu Hong grew up—a world where familial ties, military authority, and eunuch factions intersected in deadly struggles for dominance. The fall of Dong Chong weakened Empress Dowager Dong’s faction and underscored the limits of her influence.

Legacy of Liu Hong’s Youth and the Broader Historical Impact

The events surrounding Liu Hong’s youth provide a window into the complex interplay of military, ethnic, and political forces during the late Eastern Han dynasty. The integration of frontier troops into the imperial army, the rise of powerful generals like Duan Jiong, and the contentious role of palace figures such as Empress Dowager Dong all contributed to the fracturing of imperial authority that would culminate in the dynasty’s eventual collapse.

Moreover, these developments reflect broader patterns in Chinese history—the challenges of managing multi-ethnic borderlands, the tensions between military and civil officials, and the influence of eunuchs and empress dowagers in court politics. Liu Hong’s reign, shaped by these forces, set the stage for the dramatic transformations of the Three Kingdoms period.

Understanding this era requires appreciating the nuances of frontier military culture, the social status of women in imperial China, and the delicate balance of power within the palace. Liu Hong’s youth, marked by these intersecting dynamics, exemplifies the complexities that defined the twilight of the Eastern Han dynasty and the dawn of a new historical epoch.