Introduction: A Nation in Turmoil

In 1892, the Qing dynasty found itself grappling with a profound internal crisis that rattled the foundations of imperial authority and exposed the deep tensions between tradition and modernity. At the heart of this turmoil was the “Zhou Han Anti-Christian Incident,” a complex and violent episode of anti-foreign missionary violence that spread across the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Foreign missionaries and Chinese Christian converts faced unprecedented hostility, culminating in widespread attacks on churches, schools, and charitable institutions. This article delves into the historical background, key events, cultural ramifications, and enduring legacy of the 1892 anti-Christian unrest, shedding light on the challenges faced by the Qing government and the societal forces at play.

Historical Context: The Rise of Christian Missions in Late Qing China

Christian missionary activity in China had been steadily increasing since the early 19th century, especially after the Opium Wars and the consequent unequal treaties. The Treaty of Nanjing granted Western powers the right to send missionaries into the Chinese interior. By the late 19th century, foreign missionaries—particularly from Britain, France, and the United States—had established a significant presence in various provinces.

In Hunan province, for example, by 1879, there were over 120 Catholic churches, about 20 foreign missionaries, and approximately 8,700 Chinese Christian converts. Missionaries operated schools, hospitals, and orphanages, which contributed to social welfare but also stirred local suspicions and resentment.

The foreign presence and the growing number of Chinese Christians challenged traditional Confucian social structures and religious beliefs. The missionaries’ often extraterritorial privileges and involvement in local disputes exacerbated tensions with local officials and non-Christian communities.

The 1891-1892 Anti-Christian Riots: Scale and Spread

Between May and September 1891, regions along the Yangtze River—stretching from Shanghai in the east to Yichang in the west—experienced a wave of violent anti-Christian riots. Provinces such as Anhui, Jiangsu, Hubei, and Jiangxi saw churches, missionary schools, and charitable infant care institutions attacked, ransacked, and set ablaze. Both foreign missionaries and Chinese Christians faced grave threats to their safety.

The intensity of the violence alarmed foreign governments, prompting diplomatic protests. The American Minister to China, John Singleton Mosby , reported to the U.S. State Department his astonishment at the widespread nature of the unrest, noting that no city, including Shanghai, was truly safe.

In response, more than twenty foreign warships appeared along the Yangtze River as shows of force aimed at protecting their nationals. Diplomats from various countries pressed the Qing government to investigate the causes of the riots and bring the perpetrators to justice.

The Search for a Catalyst: The Role of Anti-Christian Literature and Zhou Han

Investigations revealed that the riots were fueled by a proliferation of anti-Christian pamphlets, flyers, songs, and forged official documents accusing missionaries of nefarious activities. Many of these incendiary materials were traced to three bookstores in Changsha, the capital of Hunan province.

Behind these bookstores was a figure named Zhou Han, a Hunanese scholar and gentry member known for his staunch opposition to Christianity. Zhou Han, born in 1843, had a complex background. He had initially pursued a career through the imperial examination system, achieving the rank of “xiucai” at the young age of 15. During the Taiping Rebellion, he joined the military, claiming extensive experience fighting various rebellions and uprisings over two decades. He later served under General Liu Jintang and was appointed as a local official in Shaanxi.

In 1884, Zhou Han returned to Hunan to mourn his deceased brother and was entrusted by Liu Jintang to establish the Baoshan Hall in Changsha. This hall was dedicated to publishing charitable literature and was staffed by around 100 local gentry members. Zhou oversaw the publication of works promoting famine relief, infant care, and burial services, reflecting his commitment to Confucian social values.

Clash of Values: Christianity vs. Confucian Orthodoxy

Despite his philanthropic activities, Zhou Han harbored deep resentment towards the Christian presence in China. He viewed Christianity as a foreign “heresy” undermining the Confucian moral order and the sacred social hierarchies embodied in the “Three Bonds and Five Constants”—the foundational ethical principles of traditional Chinese society.

Zhou saw the growing Christian community as a direct threat to the Confucian world order and the authority of the Qing dynasty, which claimed the Mandate of Heaven. He believed that Chinese literati and officials, who enjoyed the blessings of ancient sage-kings and Qing ancestors, had a duty to resist the Christian “heresy.” His writings expressed scathing criticism of his contemporaries, whom he accused of being less loyal and upright than even animals in their failure to oppose Christianity.

In February 1890, Zhou published a manifesto titled “A Call to All Officials and Commoners to Overthrow the Heretical Foreign Religion,” which castigated the Qing literati for their inaction and urged a united front against the spread of Christianity. The text used derogatory language to describe Christian missionaries and converts, framing them as enemies of the Chinese nation and culture.

The Complexity of Christian Influence on Local Society

Zhou’s hostility was not without some basis in the social realities of the time. Chinese Christians often sought the protection of missionaries when involved in legal disputes, leading to the perception among local officials that Christians enjoyed extralegal privileges. Corrupt or indifferent officials sometimes turned a blind eye to Christian activities to avoid political risk, inadvertently fueling resentment among non-Christian communities.

However, the widespread legal conflicts and “Christian vs. non-Christian” litigation games that exacerbated tensions became more pronounced after 1899, when the Qing government, seeking to evade responsibility, delegated the handling of Christian disputes to local officials. This policy shift was formalized by regulations aligning missionary ranks with local authorities, effectively institutionalizing missionary involvement in legal affairs.

In the early 1890s, Zhou Han’s anger was more ideologically driven than a reaction to this administrative change. He saw Christianity as an existential threat to Chinese identity and governance.

The Qing Government’s Predicament

The Qing court found itself in a difficult position. On the one hand, foreign powers demanded protection for their nationals and missionaries under the terms of international treaties. On the other hand, widespread anti-Christian sentiment among local populations and officials made enforcement of these protections challenging.

The 1892 anti-Christian riots exposed the limits of Qing authority in the provinces and the fragile social fabric of late imperial China. The government had to balance diplomatic pressures with domestic stability, often resulting in inconsistent or inadequate responses to missionary-related conflicts.

The discovery of Zhou Han’s involvement complicated matters further. As a member of the local gentry and an official at times, his anti-Christian activism highlighted the deep ideological divides within Chinese society and governance.

Cultural and Social Impacts of the Anti-Christian Movements

The anti-Christian riots of 1891-1892 were symptomatic of larger social anxieties in Qing China. The rapid influx of Western ideas, technologies, and religions challenged established norms and beliefs. Christianity, in particular, was seen by many as a symbol of foreign imperialism and cultural erosion.

The violent episodes also fueled negative stereotypes about foreign missionaries and Chinese Christians, often portraying them as subversive elements undermining Chinese sovereignty and morality. This perception, amplified by figures like Zhou Han, contributed to the growing nationalist and anti-foreign sentiments that would later culminate in events like the Boxer Rebellion .

At the same time, the riots underscored the Qing government’s weakening grip on internal order and its inability to reconcile foreign pressures with domestic concerns.

Legacy: Lessons from the Zhou Han Incident

The Zhou Han Anti-Christian Incident remains a significant episode in the history of late Qing China’s encounter with modernity. It illustrates the complex interplay between indigenous cultural resistance and foreign missionary activities during a period of profound transformation.

The events prefigured the increasing tensions that would engulf China at the turn of the century, highlighting the challenges of governance, cultural identity, and international diplomacy in a rapidly changing world.

For historians, the incident provides insight into how local elites like Zhou Han navigated the conflicting demands of loyalty to tradition, imperial authority, and the pressures of foreign influence. It also reveals how grassroots sentiments could flare into violence with far-reaching consequences.

Conclusion: A Reflection on Conflict and Change

The 1892 anti-Christian riots along the Yangtze River, centered around Zhou Han’s activism, encapsulate the tumultuous intersection of religion, politics, and culture in late Qing China. Faced with the encroachment of Western missionaries and their converts, many Chinese—especially members of the traditional gentry—perceived a threat to their worldviews and social order.

The Qing dynasty’s struggle to manage these conflicts amid increasing foreign intervention foreshadowed the empire’s eventual decline. Yet, the resistance embodied by Zhou Han and others also underscores the resilience of Chinese cultural identity and the complexities of modernization.

Understanding this episode enriches our appreciation of the era’s challenges and the enduring impact of the clash between tradition and change in Chinese history.