The late Qing dynasty period was a time of profound upheaval and transformation in Chinese history. From 1861 to the dawn of the 20th century, China grappled with internal crises and external pressures that challenged the very foundations of the empire. The Qing court’s attempts at reform were fueled by a desperate need to restore national dignity following humiliations at the hands of foreign powers. Yet, these reforms culminated in one of the dynasty’s most catastrophic episodes—the Boxer Rebellion and the subsequent declaration of war against several Western and Japanese powers in 1900. This article explores the intricate historical context, key events, and cultural reverberations of this tumultuous era, with a particular focus on the fateful days in June 1900 when the Qing court’s decisions sealed its tragic fate.

The Genesis of Late Qing Reforms: A Quest for National Redemption

The Qing dynasty’s reform efforts officially began in 1861, following the devastating defeat in the Second Opium War and the internal turmoil of the Taiping Rebellion. These reforms, often referred to as the “Self-Strengthening Movement,” were driven by a powerful desire to reverse the humiliations imposed by foreign powers. The initial and foremost goal was to prevent a repeat of the “Gengshen Incident”—a reference to the 1860 sack of the Old Summer Palace by Anglo-French forces, a symbol of Chinese vulnerability and foreign contempt.

The second objective was to modernize China’s military capabilities by acquiring modern warships and artillery, often encapsulated in the phrase “firm ships and effective guns.” This military modernization aimed to reclaim the prestige once associated with the “Celestial Empire,” the term used by the Qing to denote China’s preeminent status in East Asia. Over nearly four decades, the Qing leadership remained obsessed with restoring national pride and asserting sovereignty in the face of imperialist encroachment.

The Unraveling of Reform: From Hope to Humiliation

Despite these efforts, the reforms failed to produce the hoped-for results. Instead of renewed strength, China’s position further deteriorated. The very reforms designed to prevent further disasters culminated in an even greater humiliation: the Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901. The Boxer uprising—an anti-foreign, anti-Christian movement fueled by nationalist fervor and superstition—was both a symptom and a catalyst of Qing weakness.

In 1900, the Qing court witnessed the tragic fruition of nearly forty years of reform: the “Boxer Incident” and the subsequent occupation of the capital.

The Crucible of June 1900: Imperial Decisions at the Forbidden City

The summer of 1900 was a critical turning point. On June 19, 1900, a decisive and tense meeting unfolded in the imperial palace’s Yiluan Hall. The Ministry of Personnel’s deputy minister, Xu Jingcheng, found himself at a crossroads—both personally and for the empire. The imperial court was holding its fourth audience to deliberate whether to declare war on the foreign powers that had encroached on Chinese sovereignty.

This decision was the culmination of escalating tension within the court. Three days earlier, at the first imperial audience on June 16, a heated debate had erupted. Yuan Chang, Minister of Rites, boldly challenged the prevailing belief in mystical protection purported by the Boxers, arguing that relying on sorcery was futile and that history showed no success from such practices. His impassioned speech reverberated through the palace, but it angered the Empress Dowager Cixi, China’s de facto ruler, who retorted sharply, questioning whether human loyalty could be trusted if magical powers were dismissed.

The tension intensified when scholar Zhu Zumo questioned the Empress Dowager’s trust in the Boxers, prompting a furious outburst from Cixi. This confrontation exposed the deep divisions within the Qing leadership between pragmatists who sought diplomatic solutions and hardliners who favored confrontation.

The Empress Dowager’s Fury and the Push for War

On June 17, the second imperial meeting saw Cixi reading out a decree revealing the demands from the foreign powers: choosing a residence for the Chinese emperor, foreign control over provincial finances, the establishment of new institutions to oversee military power, and, most threateningly, an order for the Empress Dowager to abdicate. She deliberately omitted this last demand when presenting it to the court.

Angered by these humiliations and seeing foreign demands as an existential threat, Cixi declared that it was better to die fighting than to wait for inevitable subjugation. Her fiery speech galvanized the court, which responded with unanimous vows of loyalty and readiness to sacrifice themselves for the empire.

However, not all officials shared this enthusiasm. Liu Kunyi, Governor-General of Jiangnan, and Zhang Zhidong, Governor-General of Huguang—two of the Qing’s most influential reformist leaders—sent urgent telegrams opposing the declaration of war. They warned that superstition could not defend against modern armies, that internal chaos was rampant, and that the country was on the brink of collapse. Their warnings reflected a sobering realism about China’s military and political vulnerabilities.

The Third Imperial Meeting and the Threat of Treason Accusations

At the third audience on June 18, Li Yuan, Minister of Rites, voiced his opposition to war, fearing the destruction that foreign troops could wreak upon the capital. His dissent was met with harsh condemnation, and he was nearly executed on charges of treason, known as the “Han traitor” label. Another senior official, Grand Secretary Wang Wenshao, counseled the Empress Dowager to reconsider, citing the lack of military advantage and the dangers of defeat. Yet, Cixi’s response was scathing and authoritarian, threatening execution if any foreign soldiers entered the city.

Cixi’s harsh stance revealed her deep anxiety about losing power. The summoning of repeated imperial meetings was less about genuine consultation and more about binding the emperor and ministers to her course of action—declaring war. She sought to distribute responsibility for the coming disaster, unwilling to bear sole blame if the empire fell.

The Fateful Fourth Meeting and the Fall of Dagu Forts

The final meeting on June 19 was convened amid alarming news: the fall of the Dagu forts at the mouth of the Hai River, a key defensive position protecting Beijing. This defeat was a stark indication that foreign forces were already advancing rapidly.

Faced with this grim reality, the Empress Dowager resolved to officially declare war on the eight foreign powers and appointed Xu Jingcheng as envoy to negotiate with the foreign legations. This decision marked the formal entry of China into a multi-front conflict that would devastate the Qing dynasty and accelerate its decline.

The Cultural and Political Legacy of the Boxer Crisis

The Boxer Rebellion and the Qing court’s declaration of war had profound consequences. The uprising itself was a complex mixture of anti-foreign sentiment, popular superstition, and resistance to modernization. The Qing leadership’s endorsement of the Boxers reflected a desperate attempt to harness nationalist fervor and traditional beliefs to confront imperialist aggression.

However, the rebellion’s failure and the subsequent occupation of Beijing by foreign troops exposed the Qing’s inability to defend its sovereignty. The empire was forced to sign the Boxer Protocol in 1901, which imposed severe penalties, indemnities, and foreign military presence in China. This humiliation accelerated the momentum for reform and revolution.

The crisis also exposed the fractures within the Qing government between reformists and conservatives, between pragmatists and ideologues. Many officials like Xu Jingcheng, who advocated diplomacy and reform, paid with their lives. The Empress Dowager’s insistence on war revealed the limitations of her rule and the dangers of autocratic decision-making in the face of complex modern challenges.

Conclusion: The Twilight Before the Fall

The late Qing reforms, initiated with hopes of national rejuvenation, tragically culminated in the Boxer Rebellion and the declaration of war against foreign powers in 1900. The events of June 1900, marked by intense court debates, imperial edicts, and military setbacks, symbolized the final unraveling of Qing authority.

This period serves as a poignant reminder of the challenges faced by traditional empires confronting modern imperialism and internal decay. The Qing dynasty’s attempts to reconcile ancient traditions with the demands of a changing world ultimately faltered, setting the stage for the revolutionary transformations that would reshape China in the 20th century.

The legacy of these events continues to resonate as a testament to the complexity of reform, the perils of nationalism intertwined with superstition, and the enduring quest for sovereignty and dignity in the face of overwhelming odds.