Introduction: The Ground Forces as the Foundation of Civilization and Warfare

Throughout history, infantry has been the backbone of military power and the cornerstone of civilization’s expansion. From the ancient Greek armies that besieged Troy to the Roman legions that triumphed over Hannibal at Zama, foot soldiers have played the most decisive role in warfare. Despite technological advances and dramatic changes in society, the reality remains that control over land is paramount. Cities cannot float in the air, nor can a civilization thrive without a secure terrestrial base.

While naval and air forces often capture the imagination through spectacular battles and technological marvels, it is the infantry that ultimately secures and holds territory. It is easier and more cost-effective to recruit and arm ground troops than to maintain powerful navies or air forces. This article explores the historical significance of infantry, examining key battles, strategic realities, and the continuing importance of ground warfare even in the modern era.

Ancient Foundations: Infantry in the Epic Conflicts of Antiquity

The Homeric epics immortalize the siege of Troy, where Greek infantry and their allied forces laid waste to a city that had withstood years of conflict. This legendary event illustrates the centrality of ground troops in classical warfare. The Greeks’ ability to field heavily armed hoplites—infantry soldiers equipped with shields and spears—enabled them to confront the Trojan defenders directly, engaging in brutal hand-to-hand combat.

Similarly, the Roman legions, known for their discipline and tactical flexibility, relied heavily on infantry to achieve victory. The Battle of Zama in 202 BCE, where Roman forces under Scipio Africanus decisively defeated Hannibal’s Carthaginian army, underscored the importance of well-trained foot soldiers in determining the fate of empires. Hannibal’s cavalry and war elephants were formidable, but it was Roman infantry that ultimately won the day, securing Rome’s dominance over the Mediterranean.

The Primacy of Land Control in Warfare and Civilization

The foundation of civilization has always been grounded in terrestrial conquest and defense. Unlike Aristophanes’ comedies that imagined cities lofty and detached from the earth, real urban centers depend on control of land and resources. Control of territory ensures access to food, water, minerals, and strategic depth.

Naval power, though capable of imposing blockades and isolating island states or weaker land powers, cannot by itself conquer and hold vast territories. The Allied navies in World War II nearly strangled Japan into submission by cutting off supplies, and Germany’s U-boat campaign sought to starve Britain into surrender. However, these campaigns, while devastating, did not replace the need for ground invasions and occupation to secure lasting victory.

Naval and Air Power: Strategic Tools but Not Final Determinants

Naval battles such as the Battle of Salamis, the Battle of Trafalgar, and the Battle of Jutland have been pivotal in shaping the strategic landscape of their times. Likewise, the use of strategic bombing and nuclear weapons in World War II demonstrated the destructive potential of air power. Yet, none of these could alone secure the unconditional defeat of an enemy state.

For example, the Holy League’s naval victory at Lepanto in 1571 dealt a blow to Ottoman sea power but did not end the Ottoman threat to Europe. In the 1982 Falklands War, British naval and air forces were essential in regaining control of the islands, but it was the deployment of ground troops that ultimately forced Argentine forces to surrender.

Similarly, the 12-year coalition air campaign against Saddam Hussein’s Iraq weakened his regime but did not remove it. Only the ground invasion in 2003 toppled Saddam’s government. These examples underscore that air and naval forces can win limited wars or shape conditions, but final victory in total war necessitates infantry forces to occupy and administer enemy territory.

World War II: Infantry’s Central Role in the Largest Conflict in History

World War II vividly illustrates the enduring importance of infantry. The geographical position of Germany, situated at the heart of Europe, meant that the Allies had to plan extensive land invasions to defeat the Third Reich. The German army was renowned for its fighting prowess, and at its peak, it fielded over five million frontline soldiers.

The Allied strategy focused on destroying or capturing the vast majority of German ground forces. Naval and air superiority were prerequisites, but the ultimate victory depended on massive infantry deployments. Even before the war, the major naval powers—the United Kingdom, the United States, and Japan—maintained larger armies than navies, reflecting the necessity of ground forces.

By 1943, after the conclusion of major naval engagements in the European theater, infantry battles dominated the war. The German Luftwaffe and Kriegsmarine personnel often fought as infantry on the ground due to losses and personnel shortages. The scale and intensity of land combat were horrific: over 75% of combat deaths during the war were infantry soldiers.

Comparing Naval and Infantry Casualties: The Battle of Midway and Kursk

The Battle of Midway , the largest tank battle in history fought on the Eastern Front.

Kursk was a two-week-long clash involving millions of Soviet and German soldiers, with daily casualties numbering in the tens of thousands. This stark comparison highlights the brutal human cost of infantry and armored warfare on land, which far surpassed that of naval engagements.

Technological and Organizational Evolution: Infantry in the 20th Century

Contrary to the assumption that mechanization and air power would render infantry obsolete, foot soldiers adapted and remained central to military operations. By 1945, infantrymen were equipped with weapons more lethal than ever before. The most revolutionary weapon of World War II was not tanks or artillery but the rifle, capable of delivering rapid, sustained fire that transformed infantry tactics.

For instance, the American M1 Garand rifle allowed soldiers to fire eight rounds quickly without reloading, increasing their firepower dramatically. Mass production of such weapons ensured that infantry could dominate the battlefield despite mechanized threats.

Furthermore, infantry units incorporated new technologies such as submachine guns, portable mortars, and bazookas, enhancing their ability to counter tanks and fortified positions. Organizational changes, including combined arms tactics and greater emphasis on mobility and communication, improved infantry effectiveness.

The Strategic Necessity of Occupation and Ground Control Post-Conflict

Winning a war requires not only defeating enemy forces but also preventing their resurgence. This often necessitates occupation and control of enemy territory by ground forces. The unconditional surrender of Germany and Japan came only after Allied armies penetrated their homelands, dismantled their military capabilities, and established occupation governments.

Without infantry to hold ground, enforce peace, and rebuild societies, victories remain fragile. The experiences of postwar Germany and Japan illustrate how occupation forces ensured the long-term stability and reconstruction of defeated nations.

Conclusion: Infantry’s Enduring Legacy and Future Prospects

From the Bronze Age battlefield of Troy to the nuclear age conflicts of the 20th century, infantry has remained the decisive element in warfare. While naval and air forces provide strategic leverage and can shape the conditions of war, it is ultimately the infantry that conquers and holds territory, secures political objectives, and enforces peace.

In the 21st century, as technology continues to evolve, the role of infantry adapts but does not disappear. Ground troops remain essential in counterinsurgency, peacekeeping, and conventional conflicts. The human element—soldiers on the ground—is irreplaceable in the complex realities of war and peace.

The history of infantry’s centrality offers enduring lessons about the nature of power, the limits of technology, and the primacy of land control in human affairs. As long as civilization is rooted in the earth beneath our feet, infantry will remain the foundation of military success and the protector of nations.