The early years of the Eastern Han dynasty were marked by a series of brutal military campaigns aimed at reunifying China after the chaos of the Xin dynasty interregnum and the widespread rebellions that followed. Central to this reunification was Liu Xiu, later Emperor Guangwu, whose military acumen and political skill restored the Han dynasty’s rule over fragmented territories. Among his most critical challenges were the consolidation of the southern and southwestern regions, where various local warlords and separatist regimes contested control. This article delves into the pivotal campaigns led by Liu Xiu and his generals against these forces, exploring the historical context, the key battles, and the lasting legacy of these wars.

Historical Background: The Fall of the Xin Dynasty and the Rise of Warlords

The collapse of the short-lived Xin dynasty , founded by Wang Mang, created a power vacuum across China. Various factions, including remnants of the Han loyalists and local magnates, battled for supremacy. The chaos was compounded by the Red Eyebrows Rebellion and other peasant uprisings. Liu Xiu, a member of the Han imperial family, emerged as a leading figure advocating the restoration of Han rule.

While Liu Xiu rapidly consolidated power in northern China and established the Eastern Han dynasty in 25 AD, vast swathes of southern and southwestern China remained under the control of regional warlords and separatist regimes who resisted central authority. Notable among these were the forces of Dong Su and Deng Feng in the Nanyang region, Yan Cen and Qin Feng in Hanzhong, Li Xian’s faction, and the Gongsun Shu regime based in Sichuan .

These localized powers had exploited the chaotic conditions to assert autonomy, and their defeat was essential to Liu Xiu’s vision of a unified empire.

The Campaign Against Dong Su and Deng Feng: Restoring Control in Nanyang

### The Rebellion of Dong Su and Deng Feng

Following Liu Xiu’s defeat of various contenders in northern China, unrest erupted in the Nanyang region , capturing the local governor Liu Lin.

Deng Feng, a former general turned rebel, also took up arms against the Han regime. His anger was fueled by the misconduct of Wu Han’s troops, whose lack of discipline and plundering alienated local populations. Deng Feng’s forces allied with Dong Su’s, creating a formidable opposition.

### Liu Xiu’s Strategic Response

Recognizing the threat posed by the Dong-Deng alliance and the ineffective leadership of Wu Han, Liu Xiu appointed Cen Peng, the General Who Conquers the South, to lead a fresh campaign. Cen Peng marshaled approximately 80,000 troops, including prominent generals such as Zhu Bo, Jia Fu, Geng Bin, Wang Chang, and others, to move against the rebels.

### The Protracted Battle for Duxiang

The conflict began in November 26 AD, with Han forces launching a siege on Duxiang. Deng Feng attempted to relieve Dong Su by leading 10,000 troops but faced fierce resistance. While the Han army initially struggled to capture the stronghold, causing setbacks including the defeat of General Zhu Hu, the tide turned when Liu Xiu personally arrived to oversee operations.

With Liu Xiu’s presence boosting morale and Cen Peng’s military expertise, Han forces managed to break through rebel defenses by the summer of 27 AD. Dong Su surrendered, and Deng Feng retreated, effectively ending their rebellion.

The Long Struggle Against Yan Cen and Qin Feng: Securing Hanzhong

### The Emergence of Yan Cen and Qin Feng’s Regimes

In the mountainous region of Hanzhong , Yan Cen had established control during the waning days of Wang Mang’s rule. Initially submitting to Han forces led by Liu Jia, Yan Cen rebelled again, defeating Liu Jia and proclaiming himself a local king. He even bested a massive army of 100,000 troops sent by rebel leader Pang An, earning the title King of Wu’an.

Meanwhile, Qin Feng controlled the area around Liqiu , declaring himself King of Chu Li.

### Liu Xiu’s Campaign to Eliminate the Hanzhong Warlords

Between 27 and 29 AD, Han generals Cen Peng, Geng Bin, and others launched a nearly three-year campaign against Yan Cen and Qin Feng. These efforts were marked by challenging terrain, guerilla tactics by the rebels, and the need to win over local populations.

The eventual defeat of these separatists consolidated Han control over the strategically critical corridor connecting central China to the southwest.

The Suppression of Li Xian’s Faction: Restoring Order in the South

### Li Xian’s Rebellion and Its Threat

Li Xian, another local warlord, posed a significant threat in the south. His forces resisted Han authority, creating instability. To tackle this, Liu Xiu appointed General Ma Cheng, the General Who Raises Martial Power, to lead the campaign.

### The Campaign and Its Outcome

From September 28 AD to January 30 AD, Ma Cheng led Han forces in a series of battles that gradually eroded Li Xian’s power. After more than a year of conflict, Li Xian’s forces were decisively defeated, further paving the way for Han reunification.

The Campaign Against Gongsun Shu: The Final Annexation of Sichuan

### Gongsun Shu’s Independent Regime in Shu

While Liu Xiu was consolidating power elsewhere, Gongsun Shu had proclaimed himself emperor in the Shu region , establishing a rival regime with its capital at Chengdu. His control of this fertile and strategic area threatened Liu Xiu’s ambition of a fully unified Han empire.

### The Battle of Yiling: The First Phase of the Campaign

The campaign against Gongsun Shu unfolded in two main phases. The first phase began in the spring of 33 AD, when Gongsun Shu dispatched his vassal Tian Rong to seize key locations like Yiling and Yidao. Han generals Cen Peng and Wu Han responded by recapturing these areas by 35 AD, pushing the Shu forces back to Jiangzhou.

### The Siege of Chengdu: The Decisive Battle

In June 35 AD, Han forces launched a massive assault on Chengdu, with Cen Peng, Lai She, and Wu Han commanding a formidable army of approximately 200,000 troops. Employing a pincer movement from the north and south, the Han army laid siege to the city.

After months of fierce fighting, the Han forces finally captured Chengdu in October 36 AD, effectively ending Gongsun Shu’s separatist regime and bringing Sichuan under Han control.

Cultural and Political Impact of Liu Xiu’s Southern Campaigns

Liu Xiu’s successful campaigns against these southern and southwestern warlords were not only military victories but also political and cultural milestones. They reestablished centralized governance over regions that had been fragmented for over a decade, facilitating economic recovery and cultural integration.

The consolidation of the south ensured the stability necessary for the Eastern Han dynasty to flourish. It also reinforced the legitimacy of Liu Xiu’s rule, which was grounded in the restoration of Han traditions and Confucian governance after years of upheaval.

Legacy: Liu Xiu’s Role in Reunifying China

The wars waged by Liu Xiu and his generals from 26 to 36 AD were instrumental in ending the fragmentation that followed the fall of the Western Han dynasty. By systematically dismantling separatist regimes and warlord enclaves, he laid the foundation for nearly two centuries of Eastern Han rule.

Moreover, the campaigns demonstrated the importance of disciplined military leadership, strategic patience, and the integration of political and military objectives. Liu Xiu’s ability to adapt to shifting circumstances, rally troops, and win over local populations was crucial to his success.

His southern campaigns are a testament to the complexities of reunification in ancient China and the enduring challenge of governing diverse and often remote regions within a vast empire.

Conclusion

Liu Xiu’s unification wars in southern and southwestern China stand as a remarkable chapter in Chinese history. Through a combination of military might, strategic foresight, and political acumen, he subdued powerful regional warlords such as Dong Su, Deng Feng, Yan Cen, Qin Feng, Li Xian, and Gongsun Shu. These victories not only restored territorial integrity but also reinforced the cultural and political foundations of the Eastern Han dynasty.

In examining these campaigns, we gain insight into the turbulent era of early Eastern Han China and the formidable challenges that faced any ruler seeking to unify a fractured realm. Liu Xiu’s legacy as a unifier and restorer continues to be celebrated as a defining moment in the continuity of Chinese imperial history.