When people think of ancient Chinese kingdoms, they often picture the mighty Tang, Song, or Ming dynasties. But tucked away in the mountainous region of Yunnan, the Dali Kingdom (937–1253) flourished for over three centuries, standing as an independent power while coexisting with its much larger neighbor, the Song Dynasty. This small yet intriguing kingdom, ruled by the Duan family, witnessed political intrigue, Buddhist devotion, and ultimately, a dramatic end at the hands of the Mongols.

A Kingdom Built on the Ruins of Chaos

Before Dali emerged, Yunnan was home to the Nanzhao Kingdom (738–902), a powerful state that frequently clashed with the Tang Dynasty. However, internal strife and power struggles led to Nanzhao’s collapse, creating a chaotic period in which several short-lived states, such as Da Changhe, Da Tianxing, and Da Yining, rose and fell in rapid succession.

Amidst this turmoil, Duan Siping, a local warlord with ambitions greater than his predecessors, gained the support of 37 tribes in eastern Yunnan. In 937 AD, he seized control and established the Dali Kingdom, naming Yangjumie (modern-day Dali) as its capital. With its stunning natural defenses—towering mountains and vast lakes—Dali thrived, forming a distinct culture shaped by its Bai ethnic roots and Buddhist beliefs.

The Unique Political Culture of Dali

Unlike the centralized bureaucracy of the Song Dynasty, Dali operated more like a feudal state, with powerful local families maintaining considerable autonomy. Though Dali officially acknowledged the Song as its suzerain, it remained politically and economically independent.

However, in its later years, the Duan family’s grip on power weakened. By the 12th century, real political authority shifted to the Gao family, a powerful aristocratic clan. This left the Duan rulers with little to do but immerse themselves in Buddhism, a practice that eventually defined the kingdom’s ruling elite.

The Mongols and the Fall of Dali

Dali might have continued its existence if not for the unstoppable force of the Mongol Empire. By the 13th century, the Mongols had already conquered the Jin Dynasty in northern China and were locked in a prolonged war with the Southern Song. To break the Song’s resistance, the Mongols devised an ambitious strategy known as the “Wohu Plan”—a massive flanking maneuver through Tibet and Yunnan to attack the Song from the southwest.

In 1253, Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, led his army southward, splitting his forces into three routes. Their journey was grueling, crossing towering mountain ranges, dense jungles, and uncharted territories. According to historical accounts, when the Mongols reached the Jinsha River, they lacked boats to cross. Local Bai villagers demonstrated a technique using inflated sheep bladders as flotation devices—an innovation the Mongols quickly adopted, earning the event the name “Crossing the River with Leather Bags” (Yuan Kua Ge Nang).

By January 1254, the Mongols arrived at the gates of Dali City. The ruling Duan family and their power-hungry regent, Gao Taixiang, attempted a last-minute defense but failed miserably. The Duan ruler abandoned his capital, leaving the city vulnerable. Unlike other Mongol conquests, Kublai Khan chose not to massacre the population and instead integrated the region into the growing Mongol Empire.

Duan Family: From Kings to Mongol Servants

Though Dali was gone as an independent state, the Duan family survived. The Mongols saw value in their local influence and appointed them as regional administrators under the newly established Yunnan Province (1274). However, their power was greatly reduced, and they acted more as puppets than rulers.

For over a century, the Duan family remained loyal to their Mongol overlords. They provided military assistance during campaigns, ensuring their survival as Mongol vassals. However, when the Ming Dynasty rose to power in 1368, the end was near.

The Ming Dynasty: The Final Blow to the Duan Legacy

After overthrowing the Yuan Dynasty, Emperor Hongwu of Ming (r. 1368–1398) sought to eliminate all remnants of Mongol rule, including the local elites who had served them. In 1382, Ming general Fu Youde led a powerful army into Yunnan. The final Dali ruler, Duan Shi, attempted to negotiate, hoping to retain autonomy under the Ming as had been the case with previous dynasties. But this time, things were different.

Fu Youde rejected Duan’s pleas and launched a decisive attack on Dali City, capturing the last remnants of the Duan family. Unlike the Mongols, the Ming showed no mercy. The Duan family was eradicated, their lands confiscated, and their centuries-long legacy was wiped from history. The Ming destroyed local historical records and abolished the semi-autonomous Dali administration, ensuring no rival power would rise again.

Legacy of the Dali Kingdom

Today, the ruins of the Dali Kingdom remain scattered across Yunnan, with its capital city Dali still serving as a cultural hub of the Bai ethnic minority. Though its political power faded long ago, its unique Buddhist heritage, architectural wonders, and mysterious past continue to intrigue historians and travelers alike.

The rise and fall of Dali is a reminder that history is not just about emperors and great battles—sometimes, it is about forgotten kingdoms that quietly shaped the world, only to vanish into the pages of time.