The Unrest in Egypt: A Divine Bovine Controversy

During his brief stay in Gaul, Emperor Hadrian received troubling news from the distant province of Egypt. In Alexandria, a violent conflict had erupted—not between the usual factions of Greek and Jewish residents, but among the native Egyptians themselves. The cause? A sacred bull.

Ancient Egyptian religion revered bulls as divine manifestations. As early as the 5th century BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus documented this belief, describing a bull with unique markings believed to absorb the powers of the sun and moon. When such a bull appeared, communities fought fiercely over which city would house and venerate it. That Roman citizens—subjects of a vast, pragmatic empire—could engage in such fervent disputes amused and frustrated Hadrian.

Rather than intervene personally, Hadrian dispatched a stern letter to Egypt’s governor, delegating the matter. Yet he suspected this was only a temporary fix. The deeper issue—Egypt’s volatile governance—would eventually demand his attention. But for now, pressing matters in the West took precedence.

The Citizenship Crisis in Hispania

In the winter of 122–123 CE, Hadrian convened representatives from Hispania’s colonies and municipalities in Tarraco (modern Tarragona, Spain). The issue at hand: tensions between “Italians” (long-standing Roman citizens) and “Spaniards” (newly enfranchised citizens).

Rome’s policy of granting citizenship to auxiliary soldiers upon retirement had swelled the ranks of new citizens by 150,000 every 25 years. While this ensured a steady supply of legionaries, it bred resentment among older citizens, who saw their privileges diluted. In Hispania, recruitment efforts faltered as both groups refused to cooperate—Italians with quiet defiance, Spaniards with outright refusal, fearing Hadrian (an Italian himself) might favor the old guard.

Hadrian’s solution was likely a compromise: limiting certain non-essential rights (e.g., local council candidacy) for new citizens while preserving core benefits like tax exemptions. This balance—acknowledging hierarchy without immobility—restored stability. Notably, Hadrian avoided grand gestures (e.g., triumphal monuments) that might inflame tensions further.

Assassination Attempt and a Glimpse into Roman Justice

During his stay in Tarraco, an enslaved man attacked Hadrian with a dagger. The emperor, then 47, subdued the assailant himself. Upon learning the attacker was mentally ill, Hadrian ordered medical care rather than punishment. This episode reveals two insights:
1. Roman law already recognized insanity as a mitigating factor.
2. Hadrian retained formidable physical prowess well into middle age.

The Eastern Frontier: Diplomacy Over War

News from Syria soon diverted Hadrian eastward: the Parthian Empire, Rome’s perennial rival, showed signs of unrest. Unlike Egypt’s bovine squabbles, this threatened imperial security. Yet Hadrian, a proponent of diplomacy, opted for summitry over warfare.

Meeting the Parthian king on an island in the Euphrates—without legionary escort—Hadrian leveraged his understanding of Parthian politics. The king, pressured by hardliners at home, sought to avoid war as much as Rome did. Their talks succeeded; Parthia disbanded its army, and crisis was averted.

A Scholar’s Journey Through Anatolia

With the East pacified, Hadrian embarked on a cultural tour of Anatolia (modern Turkey). This region, now arid to the modern eye, was then a tapestry of Hellenistic cities boasting theaters for tens of thousands. Key stops included:
– Rhodes: A floral paradise and intellectual hub.
– Halicarnassus: Birthplace of Herodotus.
– Ephesus: A bustling commercial port.
– Troy: Legendary setting of the Iliad.

Here, Hadrian likely met Antinous, the Bithynian youth who would become his beloved companion. The journey underscored his philhellenism—a lifelong passion for Greek culture.

Completing the Imperial Circuit: Danube and Home

Hadrian crossed into Europe via the Dardanelles, inspecting the Danube frontier where he had once served as a young officer. By season’s end, he turned south to winter in Athens, the heart of Hellenic tradition.

Legacy: The Administrator-Philosopher

Hadrian’s reign (117–138 CE) redefined imperial leadership. His solutions—compromise in Hispania, clemency in Tarraco, diplomacy in Parthia—reflected a pragmatic yet humane approach. Later, he codified Roman law and built monuments like Hadrian’s Wall, blending governance with cultural patronage.

For modern readers, Hadrian’s era offers lessons in crisis management: the art of balancing force with foresight, and tradition with adaptability. His travels—physical and intellectual—remind us that even empires are sustained not just by power, but by curiosity and connection.