The Collapse of the Antonine Peace

When Emperor Commodus was strangled in his bath on December 31, 192 AD, Rome stood at a precipice. The golden age of the Antonine dynasty—marked by stability under rulers like Marcus Aurelius—gave way to a brutal power struggle. What followed was 193 AD’s “Year of Five Emperors,” where military strongmen Pescennius Niger, Pertinax, Clodius Albinus, Didius Julianus, and Septimius Severus vied for control. Remarkably, all five had served under Marcus Aurelius, revealing how the empire’s defenders became its destabilizers.

This crisis exposed Rome’s fragile power structures. As historian Cassius Dio observed, the era proved that “might made right”—legitimacy now flowed from army loyalty rather than senatorial approval or dynastic ties. The principate’s veneer of constitutional governance cracked, foreshadowing the militarized empire of the third century.

Pertinax: The Soldier-Emperor’s Brief Reign

### From Freedman’s Son to Emperor

Publius Helvius Pertinax’s rise epitomized Roman social mobility. Born in 126 AD to a freed wool merchant in Liguria, he leveraged education (a traditional path to citizenship) before joining the legions. His career was a masterclass in military meritocracy:

– Syrian Frontier: Choosing the “soft” Syrian garrison over Germanic fronts, Pertinax stood out as an Italian officer among local recruits, rising to primus pilus (chief centurion).
– Logistics Genius: His brilliance in supply management during the Parthian War (161-166 AD) caught Marcus Aurelius’s attention, earning rapid promotions.
– Danube Commander: As governor of Upper Moesia, he defended the empire against Marcomanni invasions alongside general Pompeianus.

By 193 AD, the 66-year-old Pertinax was urban prefect of Rome—a logical successor after Commodus’s murder.

### Reform and Rebellion

Pertinax’s 87-day reign was a whirlwind of restoration:

– Financial Austerity: He halted Commodus’s excesses, auctioning imperial luxuries to replenish the treasury.
– Senatorial Reconciliation: Reviving Nerva’s model, he pledged no senator would be executed without trial—a stark contrast to Commodus’s purges.
– Military Misstep: Crucially, he delayed donatives (bonuses) for the Praetorian Guard, whose commander Laetus had engineered his rise.

On March 28, 193 AD, 300 Praetorians stormed the Palatine. The old soldier died sword in hand, his last words reportedly: “Strike if you dare!”

The Auction of an Empire

### Didius Julianus’s Shameless Bid

With Pertinax dead, the Praetorians infamously auctioned the throne. Senator Didius Julianus—a wealthy but undistinguished governor—outbid Pertinax’s father-in-law Sulpicianus by promising 25,000 sesterces per guard (≈5 years’ salary).

Though the Senate reluctantly confirmed him, the provinces revolted. Three rival generals declared themselves emperor:

1. Pescennius Niger: Backed by Syrian legions
2. Clodius Albinus: Britain’s governor
3. Septimius Severus: Danube army commander

### The Downfall of a Puppet

Julianus’s reign collapsed within months. As Severus marched on Rome, the Senate condemned Julianus, who was executed in his palace by a common soldier—a humiliating end for a man who bought power.

The Severan Ascendancy

### Septimius Severus’s Victory

Emerging victorious by 197 AD, Severus established a new dynasty but learned from 193’s chaos:

– Military First: He raised legionary pay and allowed soldiers to marry, binding their loyalty.
– Praetorian Purge: He disbanded the treacherous guard, replacing them with loyal Danubian veterans.
– Propaganda: Co-opting Pertinax’s legacy, he deified him and took the name Pertinax Augustus.

Legacy of the Crisis

The Year of Five Emperors marked a tectonic shift:

– From Principate to Dominate: The facade of shared governance with the Senate faded as emperors openly relied on the army.
– Provincial Power: Frontier generals like Severus could now seize power, decentralizing Roman politics.
– Economic Strain: Constant civil wars and military bribes debased the currency, foreshadowing the Crisis of the Third Century.

As Edward Gibbon noted, Pertinax’s death symbolized the end of “moderate government.” Rome’s imperial system, once stabilized by adoptive succession, now belonged to whoever commanded the sharpest swords—and deepest coffers. The age of the barracks emperors had begun.