The Decline of the Severan Dynasty and Rise of Gordian I

The year 238 AD marked one of the most chaotic periods in Roman imperial history, when five men would claim the purple in rapid succession. This crisis emerged from the declining years of the Severan dynasty, which had ruled Rome since 193 AD. Emperor Alexander Severus, the last Severan ruler, had appointed the octogenarian Gordian as governor of Africa Proconsularis – a decision that would have unexpected consequences for the empire.

Gordian represented the traditional Roman aristocracy in every respect. His patrician lineage stretched back to the Republic, with both his father’s and mother’s families maintaining continuous senatorial positions for centuries. His wife descended from Emperor Antoninus Pius, further cementing his elite status. Beyond pedigree, Gordian possessed immense wealth, owning properties that symbolized Roman opulence – including a legendary villa outside Rome featuring 200 imported marble columns from across the Mediterranean world.

The Senatorial Revolt Against Maximinus Thrax

The crisis began when discontent boiled over against Emperor Maximinus Thrax, a so-called “barracks emperor” who had risen through military ranks rather than aristocratic circles. The Senate, long resentful of this “Thracian” outsider, seized an opportunity when African landowners revolted against imperial tax collectors and proclaimed the elderly Gordian as emperor in early 238.

Gordian’s letter to the Senate played perfectly to aristocratic sensibilities. He framed his reluctant acceptance as a duty to save Rome from barbarism, carefully deferring final authority to the Senate’s wisdom. The senators, eager to overthrow Maximinus, immediately declared Gordian Augustus and his son Gordian II as co-emperor. They simultaneously branded Maximinus and his supporters as enemies of the state, offering rewards for their deaths.

Military Backlash and the Fall of the Gordians

The Gordians’ reign proved disastrously short-lived. While the Senate celebrated in Rome, the powerful Legio III Augusta in neighboring Numidia remained loyal to Maximinus. These battle-hardened troops marched on Carthage, where only a modest garrison defended the provincial capital. Despite Gordian II’s personal leadership in battle, the defenders stood no chance against a full legion. The young co-emperor died in combat, prompting the elder Gordian to take his own life after just 21 days of rule.

This stunning reversal left the Senate scrambling. Having irrevocably declared Maximinus a public enemy, they hastily appointed two new emperors: the experienced military commander Pupienus and the aristocratic politician Balbinus. This unlikely duo represented an attempt to balance military and civilian leadership during the crisis.

The Siege of Aquileia and Maximinus’ Downfall

Meanwhile, Maximinus abandoned his Danube campaigns to march on Italy. His progress stalled at Aquileia, where citizens closed their gates in defiance. The prolonged siege proved fatal for Maximinus’ reputation. As supplies dwindled and winter approached, his own troops – particularly those with families near Rome – turned against him. Soldiers murdered the emperor in his tent, ending his three-year reign in brutal fashion.

The Senate’s victory proved hollow. Pupienus and Balbinus quickly fell into conflict as senatorial factions polarized around each emperor. Their inability to govern effectively disillusioned the very soldiers who had overthrown Maximinus. Within months, mutinous troops killed both emperors, leaving the 13-year-old Gordian III as the sole surviving imperial candidate from this bloody year.

The Legacy of the Year of Five Emperors

The crisis of 238 exposed fundamental weaknesses in Rome’s imperial system. The senatorial aristocracy demonstrated both its political influence and military impotence, while the army’s power to make and unmake emperors became undeniable. Gordian III’s subsequent six-year reign, guided by the capable praetorian prefect Timesitheus, provided temporary stability but couldn’t resolve the structural issues.

Historically, this turbulent year marked the definitive end of the Principate system established by Augustus. The subsequent fifty years would see even greater instability, with the empire nearly collapsing during the Crisis of the Third Century. The events of 238 AD thus represent a pivotal turning point in Roman history, when the facade of senatorial partnership with the military finally shattered, foreshadowing the more overt military autocracy of the later empire.