The Collapse of Unity: Egypt’s Return to Division

The end of Egypt’s New Kingdom (c. 1069 BCE) marked the beginning of a turbulent era known as the Third Intermediate Period—a time later described as “an age of infamous darkness.” The once-unified empire fractured once more, reverting to its ancient duality: two kingdoms, North and South, each ruled by competing powers.

In the North, Smendes, a figure of obscure origins but considerable influence, succeeded Ramesses XI as the first pharaoh of the 21st Dynasty (c. 1069–1043 BCE). His marriage to Tentamen, likely a princess from the old Ramesside lineage, reinforced his legitimacy. The royal couple was hailed as “the pillars of Amun in his northern lands.”

Meanwhile, in the South, the high priests of Amun at Thebes emerged as de facto rulers. Herihor, successor to Piankh, not only claimed the title of High Priest but also governed Nubia and married Piankh’s widow, Nodjmet—a woman of royal blood. By doing so, Herihor secured his own quasi-royal status, adopting pharaonic iconography, including the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. The fears of the 18th Dynasty pharaohs, who had once sought to curb priestly power during the Amarna revolution, had now become reality.

The Priest-Kings of Thebes: A Theocracy Ascendant

Thebes, centered around the Karnak temple complex, became the heart of a theocratic state. Herihor commissioned a grand ceremonial barque for Amun’s processions, but Egypt’s diminished influence was starkly revealed when his envoy Wenamun was humiliated by the ruler of Byblos, who scoffed, “I am not your servant, nor am I the servant of him who sent you!”

To fund his projects, Herihor continued his predecessor’s practice of looting royal tombs. His own burial goods, though never found, were said to rival—if not surpass—those of Tutankhamun. His wife Nodjmet, however, was meticulously mummified, her remains preserved with cosmetics, padding, and an elaborate wig, reflecting the embalming expertise refined during the “restoration” projects of Piankh’s era.

The Tanis Dynasty: A Northern Revival

The 21st Dynasty eventually relocated its capital to Tanis in the eastern Delta, repurposing stonework from the abandoned Ramesside city of Pi-Ramesses. Psusennes I (c. 1039–991 BCE), a descendant of both Smendes and Herihor’s line, ruled from Tanis, where his intact tomb—discovered in 1939—revealed treasures comparable to Tutankhamun’s, including a silver coffin and gold funerary mask, likely repurposed from earlier Ramesside burials.

Yet Tanis’ waterlogged environment proved disastrous for preservation. While Psusennes’ mummy decayed, his Theban priest-kin, buried in the arid hills of the South, remained remarkably intact—a metaphor for the enduring power of Amun’s priesthood.

The Libyan Ascendancy and the Shadow of Nubia

By the 22nd Dynasty (c. 945–715 BCE), Egypt saw the rise of Libyan-descended rulers like Shoshenq I, who launched campaigns into Palestine, sacking Jerusalem’s temple—an event recorded in the Bible as the work of “Shishak, king of Egypt.” Meanwhile, in the South, the Kushite kings of Nubia grew increasingly assertive.

Piy (or Piye), a devout follower of Amun, invaded Egypt c. 727 BCE, framing his conquest as a holy war. After securing Thebes, he marched north, defeating a coalition of Delta princes and establishing the 25th Dynasty (c. 747–656 BCE). His successors, including Taharqa, presided over a cultural renaissance, building temples from Napata to Memphis and forging alliances with Judea against the expanding Assyrian empire.

The Assyrian Onslaught and the End of Kushite Rule

Taharqa’s reign, though marked by architectural splendor, ended in catastrophe. The Assyrians, under Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal, invaded Egypt, sacking Thebes in 663 BCE—an unthinkable sacrilege that shattered Nubian control. The last Kushite pharaoh, Tantamani, fled south, and Egypt fell under Assyrian domination.

The Saite Revival and the Persian Conquest

The 26th Dynasty (664–525 BCE), based in Sais, briefly restored native rule. Psamtik I reunified Egypt with Greek mercenary support and revived trade links. However, Persia’s Cambyses II crushed Egyptian resistance in 525 BCE, desecrating mummies and temples—a brutal occupation that ended only with Alexander the Great’s arrival in 332 BCE.

Legacy of the Third Intermediate Period

This era, often dismissed as a decline, was in fact a time of dynamic cultural exchange. The priest-kings of Thebes, the Libyan pharaohs, and the Kushite rulers each left indelible marks on Egypt’s identity. The fragmentation of power revealed both the resilience and the vulnerabilities of a civilization navigating foreign influence, internal strife, and the weight of its own monumental past.

From the looting of tombs to the rise of Tanis, from the piety of Piy to the pragmatism of the Saites, the Third Intermediate Period was not merely an interlude—it was a crucible that reshaped Egypt’s destiny.