Introduction: A Multilingual Past in a Globalized Present

In today’s globalized world, foreign language proficiency is commonplace in China, from English comedy shows in Shanghai to multilingual business hubs. But this phenomenon is far from new. Ancient China, with its vast territorial expanse and frequent interactions with neighboring states and ethnic groups, had a rich tradition of translation and language learning. How did pre-modern societies handle linguistic diversity? Who were the translators bridging cultural divides? This article explores the fascinating history of translation in imperial China—from diplomatic interpreters to Buddhist scripture translators—and its lasting impact on Chinese civilization.

The Origins of Translation in Early China

The concept of “foreign languages” in ancient China encompassed both non-Han ethnic languages and those of distant kingdoms. The earliest records appear in The Book of Rites (礼记), where translating northern tribal languages was called “yi” (译), giving rise to the modern term for translation (翻译).

During the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE), professional interpreters were poetically called “tongue people” (舌人)—a vivid descriptor for those who made a living through linguistic agility. Their services became indispensable for:
– Diplomatic missions between warring states
– Trade negotiations with northern nomads
– Cultural exchanges with western regions

The Golden Age: Translation in the Tang Dynasty

The cosmopolitan Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) institutionalized translation like never before. Key developments included:

### Government Translation Bureaus
– The Secretariat (中书省) and Court of State Ceremonial (鸿胪寺) employed 20–30 official interpreters (“译语人”)
– Border provinces maintained local translation offices to handle tribal affairs

### The Rise of Polyglot Mediators
Tang’s openness allowed ethnic minorities (called “Hu people”) to dominate the profession. A famous example was An Lushan, the rebellious general who began his career as a multilingual trade mediator (“互市牙郎”) fluent in six steppe languages. Archaeological records confirm all three known Tang central interpreters were of Hu origin.

Institutionalization After the An Lushan Rebellion

The devastating An Lushan Rebellion (755–763 CE) triggered a shift toward state-controlled language programs:

– Song Dynasty Innovations
– Established the “State Letters Institute” (国信所) with 32 translators for Liao and Jin diplomacy
– Recaptured northern émigrés as language instructors

– Ming-Qing Systems
– The Ming “Four Barbarians Institute” (四夷馆) trained specialists in eight language families
– Renamed “Four Translations Institute” (四译馆) under the Qing, emphasizing pedagogy

Buddhist Translation: China’s First Knowledge Transfer

From the 2nd to 10th centuries, Buddhist scripture translation drove unprecedented cross-cultural exchange:

### The Translation Assembly Model
Monk Xuanzang (玄奘), after returning from India in 645 CE with Sanskrit texts, directed massive “translation assemblies” (译场)—effectively medieval language academies with 600 staff. These institutions:
– Produced 13 million translated characters over 19 years
– Functioned as immersive language schools
– Inspired Song Dynasty’s Translation Monastery (译经院), which even hired Indian monks as “foreign professors”

### Pedagogical Innovations
Emperor Taizong handpicked 50 gifted children for monastic language training—an early example of specialized youth education.

Four Waves That Shaped China’s Intellectual Landscape

1. Buddhist Scripture Translation (Han-Tang)
Cultural impact: Introduced Indian philosophy and vocabulary

2. Western Science Translation (Late Ming)
Landmark works: Euclid’s Elements by Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci

3. Social Theory Translation (Late Qing)
Enlightenment texts that fueled reform movements

4. Modern Academic Translation (Post-1978)
Global knowledge integration after economic reforms

Grassroots Polyglots: Merchants and Border Communities

Beyond official channels, bilingualism thrived through:

– Frontier Populations
Mixed ethnic villages produced natural interpreters, like Vietnamese-speaking Song merchant Chen Wei’an (陈惟安), later hired as a diplomatic interpreter.

– Trade Jargons
Ming-Qing coastal cities developed pidgin languages, notably Shanghai’s Yangjingbang English—a blend of Cantonese and English with creative phonetic approximations like “谷猫迎” (good morning).

The Dark Age: Isolation and Linguistic Suspicion

The late imperial turn inward brought severe restrictions:

– Qing Dynasty banned teaching Chinese to foreigners
– British missionary Robert Morrison’s tutors carried poison to avoid torture if caught (1807)
– Translation became associated with espionage risks

Legacy: From Ancient “Tongue People” to Modern Language Boom

The historical pendulum between openness and isolation offers lessons for today:
– Tang’s multicultural approach fostered golden-age prosperity
– Qing’s linguistic isolation contributed to technological stagnation
– Contemporary China’s translation revival mirrors Tang/Song dynamism

The creativity of ancient interpreters—whether through monastic translation assemblies or merchant pidgins—demonstrates humanity’s enduring drive to cross linguistic borders. As China again embraces global exchange, these historical precedents gain new relevance in understanding cultural adaptation.