From Ancient “White Labor” to Modern Contract Workers

For centuries, China’s bureaucratic machinery relied on an invisible army of temporary workers who performed essential government functions without official recognition. These workers, known as “white labor” (白役) during imperial times, formed the backbone of local administration while occupying society’s lowest rungs. Their story reveals surprising continuities between ancient governance systems and modern labor practices.

The Origins of Temporary Labor in Imperial China

China’s imperial bureaucracy developed a sophisticated system of temporary labor to address practical administrative needs. At the county level, two critical functions required significant manpower: tax collection (“money and grain”) and judicial administration (“punishment and names”). Originally, these duties fell upon ordinary citizens through a rotational corvée system – an unpaid obligation known as “white labor” for its lack of compensation.

The Song Dynasty (960-1279) marked a turning point when Chancellor Wang Anshi’s reforms transformed compulsory service into hired labor. Citizens could pay fees to the government, which then hired willing workers. By the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) dynasties, this practice became standard, with most menial tasks performed by paid workers rather than conscripted civilians.

The Qing Dynasty’s Shadow Bureaucracy

Qing administration formalized temporary labor through the “yamen runner” system. Officially, counties maintained about 80-100 registered runners divided into four squads: constables (皂班), arrest officers (快班), civilian braves (民壮), and hunters (捕班). However, the actual workforce ballooned with unregistered “helper runners” or “white labor” – temporary workers far exceeding official quotas.

Historical records reveal staggering numbers:
– Late Ming official Hou Fangyu reported counties employing over 1,000 temporary runners
– Sichuan’s Ba County had 7,000 runners before magistrate Liu Heng reduced it to several hundred
– 1817 reports described tax and arrest teams exceeding 1,000 men in Sichuan counties
– 19th century censuses estimated 2 million local government workers nationwide, mostly temporary

The Paradox of “Lowly” Yet Desirable Positions

Despite being classified as “base people” (贱民) since the Ming Dynasty – prohibiting them and their descendants from civil service exams – temporary runner positions remained highly sought. Even wealthy families paid 2-4 taels annually for “registered runner” status without performing actual duties. Several factors explain this paradox:

1. Exemption Privileges: Runners avoided other corvée obligations
2. Lucrative Side Income: Official tolerance of customary fees (“corrupt income”) from tax collection and legal cases
3. Social Protection: Runner status offered protection against official harassment for propertied families
4. Local Prestige: Despite legal stigma, runners commanded respect as “lords” in their communities

Rural Temporary Labor Systems

Beyond government, temporary labor flourished in agriculture. Ming-Qing records document three rural worker categories:
– Long-term workers: Year-round employees
– Short-term workers: Daily hires
– Busy-season workers: Temporary help during planting/harvest

This system persisted into modern times, as noted by Lu Xun in his 1921 story “Hometown,” which described similar labor classifications in early 20th century villages.

The Modern Transformation of Temporary Labor

After 1949, temporary workers remained a significant workforce, distinguished from permanent staff by:
– Non-established positions
– Different wage scales
– Limited benefits
– Post-contract termination (rural workers returning home)

By 1956, temporary workers reached 3 million nationwide, prompting labor controls to prevent rural depopulation. The 1995 Labor Law formally abolished the “temporary worker” classification, mandating equal rights under labor contracts while allowing flexible contract durations.

Today’s “temporary workers” typically refer to:
– Government contract workers outside establishment quotas
– Private sector flexible hires
– Labor dispatch arrangements

Historical Case Studies: Temporary Workers Who Changed History

### Jia Xu: The Strategist Who Rose from Temporary Status
This Three Kingdoms period figure began as a minor adviser to warlord Dong Zhuo. His brilliant counsel to Dong’s successors during crisis (urging them to attack Chang’an rather than disband) altered the course of history. Jia Xu’s career trajectory – from temporary adviser to Imperial Chancellor under Cao Pi – demonstrates how talent could overcome formal status limitations.

### The Mu Family: 260 Years of “Temporary” Governance
Ming general Mu Ying was initially sent to Yunnan as temporary garrison commander after the 1381 conquest. His family ended up governing the province for eleven generations until the Ming collapse in 1644, showing how “temporary” postings could become permanent institutions.

The Enduring Legacy of Temporary Labor Systems

China’s two-millennia experience with temporary labor reveals several enduring patterns:
1. Administrative Flexibility: Governments consistently relied on non-standard workers to supplement rigid bureaucracies
2. Status Paradoxes: Low-prestige positions often carried significant practical power
3. Labor Market Adaptability: Systems evolved from forced labor to monetized contracts
4. Social Mobility Channels: Temporary positions sometimes offered advancement opportunities

The historical “white labor” phenomenon continues to resonate in contemporary discussions about labor rights, contract workers, and the informal economy – proving that some social structures transcend dynasties and political systems.